Vital rates (left axis) and real wage (right axis): Germany, 1730–1870. Sources: Vital rates: section B of the online appendix; original sources are Fertig et al. (2018:31–33) and Pfister and Fertig (2010). Real wage from Pfister (2017: supporting information S3, 2018: supplementary material A3); cf. Historical Overview and Data Sources section in the text.