Geography of mobility and slavery in the United States. These maps show differences in absolute upward mobility across CZs measured as the mean income rank at age 30 for children born in the early 1980s (1980–1982) to parents at the 25th percentile of the national income distribution (panel a) and the county-level share of the population that were enumerated as slaves in the 1860 census (panel b). Each map divides the corresponding variable into ventiles, with darker shades denoting higher levels of upward mobility (mobility estimates are unavailable for hatched CZs) and a higher share of slaves, respectively. County (CZ) boundaries are based on maps from IPUMS NHGIS (Manson et al. 2017)