Notes: For all columns, the unit of observation is the child. The results presented are from ordinary least-squares (OLS) models, with standard errors, clustered at the mother level, shown in parentheses. OLS estimates are accompanied by estimates from an inverse probability weighting model (column 7), Heckman-type selection model (column 5), and Kling–Leibman bounds (columns 3, 4, 8, and 9). The adjusted regressions (column 6) include woman-level controls, such as use of family planning methods, ever-use of family planning methods, the total number of children who are alive (included as a set of dummy variables), educational attainment (primary or less vs. secondary and higher), age (in three age groups), religion (Christian vs. other), tribal ethnicity (Chewa vs. other), and age at sexual debut; they also include child-level controls, such as biological sex, birth order (included as a set of dummy variables), birth month fixed effects, and a flexible form over the child's age. All controls are included at their baseline value. Neighborhood fixed effects are included. Sharpened q values are presented in brackets.

^†p < .10; ^*p < .05; ^**p < .01