Regression of preterm birth on social spending and maternal education
| . | Total . | Cash . | Tax Credits . | Health . | Housing . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . |
| Spending Type | ||||||||||
| Total spending | –.0017** | –.0016** | ||||||||
| (.0002) | (.0002) | |||||||||
| Cash | –.0031**b,c,d | –.0031**b,c,d | ||||||||
| (.0003) | (.0003) | |||||||||
| Tax credits | .0131**a,c,d | .0118**a,c,d | ||||||||
| (.0015) | (.0016) | |||||||||
| Health | –.002**a,b | –.0019**a,b | ||||||||
| (.0004) | (.0004) | |||||||||
| Housing | –.0004 a,b | –.0008 a,b | ||||||||
| (.0009) | (.0009) | |||||||||
| Maternal Education (ref. = less than high school) | ||||||||||
| High school | –.0133** | –.0128** | –.0147** | –.0145** | –.008** | –.0073** | –.0132** | –.0127** | –.0135** | –.0132** |
| (.0013) | (.0013) | (.001) | (.001) | (.0014) | (.0014) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0008) | (.0008) | |
| Some college | –.0214** | –.0206** | –.0242** | –.0238** | –.0105** | –.0097** | –.02** | –.0193** | –.0212** | –.0208** |
| (.0018) | (.0018) | (.0014) | (.0014) | (.0019) | (.0019) | (.0017) | (.0017) | (.0013) | (.0013) | |
| BA or higher | –.0354** | –.0347** | –.0391** | –.0388** | –.0188** | –.018** | –.0317** | –.031** | –.0343** | –.0339** |
| (.0023) | (.0023) | (.0019) | (.0019) | (.0025) | (.0024) | (.0023) | (.0023) | (.0018) | (.0018) | |
| Interactions | ||||||||||
| High school × spending | 0 | –.0001 | .0003b | .0003b | –.0038**a,c | –.0041**a,c,d | –.0003b | –.0004b | –.001 | –.0011b |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0008) | (.0008) | |
| Some college × spending | ||||||||||
| .0001 | .0001 | .0011**b,c | .001**b,c | –.0063**a,c,d | –.0065**a,c,d | –.0003a,b | –.0004a,b | .0006b | .0005b | |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0009) | (.0009) | |
| BA or higher × spending | ||||||||||
| .0005** | .0005** | .0022**b,c | .0022**b,c | –.0076**a,c,d | –.0076**a,c,d | –.0004a,b,d | –.0004a,b,d | .0038**b,c | .0039**b,c | |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0009) | (.0009) | |
| Main Controls | ||||||||||
| Average maternal age | .0019** | .002** | .0017** | .0019** | –.0003 | –.0002 | .0014* | .0016** | .002** | .0021** |
| (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Average paternal age | –.0007 | –.0008 | –.0005 | –.0006 | .0003 | .0002 | –.0006 | –.0006 | –.0008 | –.0009† |
| (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Proportion of births to married couples | ||||||||||
| –.0421** (.003) | –.0442** (.003) | –.0398** (.0028) | –.0415** (.0028) | –.0285** (.0032) | –.0309** (.0032) | –.0375** (.0031) | –.0394** (.0031) | –.0402** (.0028) | –.0418** (.0028) | |
| Total number of births | ||||||||||
| 0(0) | 0(0) | 0**(0) | 0**(0) | 0**(0) | 0**(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | |
| Proportion of births to Black mothers | ||||||||||
| .0609** | .0605** | .0629** | .0623** | .0646** | .064** | .061** | .0608** | .0659** | .0654** | |
| (.0033) | (.0032) | (.0033) | (.0032) | (.0032) | (.0032) | (.0033) | (.0033) | (.0033) | (.0033) | |
| Proportion of births to AI/AN mothers | ||||||||||
| .0116† | .0108 | .0133* | .0124† | .0186** | .018** | .0114† | .0108 | .0129† | .012† | |
| (.0067) | (.0067) | (.0067) | (.0066) | (.0067) | (.0067) | (.0068) | (.0067) | (.0068) | (.0067) | |
| Proportion of births to Asian mothers | ||||||||||
| .0213** | .0236** | .016** | .0181** | .0209** | .0232** | .0247** | .0271** | .021** | .0235** | |
| (.0042) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0042) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | |
| Proportion of births to Hispanic mothers | ||||||||||
| –.003 (.0019) | –.0022 (.0019) | –.0033† (.0019) | –.0026 (.0019) | –.0009 (.0019) | –.0001 (.0019) | –.0034† (.0019) | –.0024 (.0019) | –.0025 (.0019) | –.0016 (.0019) | |
| Unemployment rate | .0001 | .0002 | –.0001 | –.0001 | 0 | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Poverty rate | .0003** | .0003** | .0003** | .0003** | .0004** | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Minimum wage | –.0001 | –.0002 | –.0003† | –.0001 | –.0002 | |||||
| (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0002) | ||||||
| Proportion of Black residents | ||||||||||
| –.0063 | .0025 | .0012 | –.0074 | –.0012 | ||||||
| (.0096) | (.0095) | (.0096) | (.0096) | (.0097) | ||||||
| Proportion of Hispanic residents | ||||||||||
| –.0389** | –.0326** | –.0335** | –.0393** | –.0362** | ||||||
| (.0069) | (.0068) | (.0069) | (.007) | (.007) | ||||||
| Proportion of residents with a college degree | .0088 (.0064) | .0086 (.0064) | .0052 (.0064) | .0042 (.0065) | .0065 (.0065) | |||||
| Constant | .1388** | .1331** | .134** | .126** | .1326** | .1292** | .1364** | .1326** | .1301** | .1236** |
| (.005) | (.006) | (.0048) | (.0058) | (.0051) | (.006) | (.005) | (.006) | (.0049) | (.0058) | |
| Number of Observations | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 |
| . | Total . | Cash . | Tax Credits . | Health . | Housing . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . |
| Spending Type | ||||||||||
| Total spending | –.0017** | –.0016** | ||||||||
| (.0002) | (.0002) | |||||||||
| Cash | –.0031**b,c,d | –.0031**b,c,d | ||||||||
| (.0003) | (.0003) | |||||||||
| Tax credits | .0131**a,c,d | .0118**a,c,d | ||||||||
| (.0015) | (.0016) | |||||||||
| Health | –.002**a,b | –.0019**a,b | ||||||||
| (.0004) | (.0004) | |||||||||
| Housing | –.0004 a,b | –.0008 a,b | ||||||||
| (.0009) | (.0009) | |||||||||
| Maternal Education (ref. = less than high school) | ||||||||||
| High school | –.0133** | –.0128** | –.0147** | –.0145** | –.008** | –.0073** | –.0132** | –.0127** | –.0135** | –.0132** |
| (.0013) | (.0013) | (.001) | (.001) | (.0014) | (.0014) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0008) | (.0008) | |
| Some college | –.0214** | –.0206** | –.0242** | –.0238** | –.0105** | –.0097** | –.02** | –.0193** | –.0212** | –.0208** |
| (.0018) | (.0018) | (.0014) | (.0014) | (.0019) | (.0019) | (.0017) | (.0017) | (.0013) | (.0013) | |
| BA or higher | –.0354** | –.0347** | –.0391** | –.0388** | –.0188** | –.018** | –.0317** | –.031** | –.0343** | –.0339** |
| (.0023) | (.0023) | (.0019) | (.0019) | (.0025) | (.0024) | (.0023) | (.0023) | (.0018) | (.0018) | |
| Interactions | ||||||||||
| High school × spending | 0 | –.0001 | .0003b | .0003b | –.0038**a,c | –.0041**a,c,d | –.0003b | –.0004b | –.001 | –.0011b |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0008) | (.0008) | |
| Some college × spending | ||||||||||
| .0001 | .0001 | .0011**b,c | .001**b,c | –.0063**a,c,d | –.0065**a,c,d | –.0003a,b | –.0004a,b | .0006b | .0005b | |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0009) | (.0009) | |
| BA or higher × spending | ||||||||||
| .0005** | .0005** | .0022**b,c | .0022**b,c | –.0076**a,c,d | –.0076**a,c,d | –.0004a,b,d | –.0004a,b,d | .0038**b,c | .0039**b,c | |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0009) | (.0009) | |
| Main Controls | ||||||||||
| Average maternal age | .0019** | .002** | .0017** | .0019** | –.0003 | –.0002 | .0014* | .0016** | .002** | .0021** |
| (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Average paternal age | –.0007 | –.0008 | –.0005 | –.0006 | .0003 | .0002 | –.0006 | –.0006 | –.0008 | –.0009† |
| (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Proportion of births to married couples | ||||||||||
| –.0421** (.003) | –.0442** (.003) | –.0398** (.0028) | –.0415** (.0028) | –.0285** (.0032) | –.0309** (.0032) | –.0375** (.0031) | –.0394** (.0031) | –.0402** (.0028) | –.0418** (.0028) | |
| Total number of births | ||||||||||
| 0(0) | 0(0) | 0**(0) | 0**(0) | 0**(0) | 0**(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | |
| Proportion of births to Black mothers | ||||||||||
| .0609** | .0605** | .0629** | .0623** | .0646** | .064** | .061** | .0608** | .0659** | .0654** | |
| (.0033) | (.0032) | (.0033) | (.0032) | (.0032) | (.0032) | (.0033) | (.0033) | (.0033) | (.0033) | |
| Proportion of births to AI/AN mothers | ||||||||||
| .0116† | .0108 | .0133* | .0124† | .0186** | .018** | .0114† | .0108 | .0129† | .012† | |
| (.0067) | (.0067) | (.0067) | (.0066) | (.0067) | (.0067) | (.0068) | (.0067) | (.0068) | (.0067) | |
| Proportion of births to Asian mothers | ||||||||||
| .0213** | .0236** | .016** | .0181** | .0209** | .0232** | .0247** | .0271** | .021** | .0235** | |
| (.0042) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0042) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | |
| Proportion of births to Hispanic mothers | ||||||||||
| –.003 (.0019) | –.0022 (.0019) | –.0033† (.0019) | –.0026 (.0019) | –.0009 (.0019) | –.0001 (.0019) | –.0034† (.0019) | –.0024 (.0019) | –.0025 (.0019) | –.0016 (.0019) | |
| Unemployment rate | .0001 | .0002 | –.0001 | –.0001 | 0 | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Poverty rate | .0003** | .0003** | .0003** | .0003** | .0004** | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Minimum wage | –.0001 | –.0002 | –.0003† | –.0001 | –.0002 | |||||
| (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0002) | ||||||
| Proportion of Black residents | ||||||||||
| –.0063 | .0025 | .0012 | –.0074 | –.0012 | ||||||
| (.0096) | (.0095) | (.0096) | (.0096) | (.0097) | ||||||
| Proportion of Hispanic residents | ||||||||||
| –.0389** | –.0326** | –.0335** | –.0393** | –.0362** | ||||||
| (.0069) | (.0068) | (.0069) | (.007) | (.007) | ||||||
| Proportion of residents with a college degree | .0088 (.0064) | .0086 (.0064) | .0052 (.0064) | .0042 (.0065) | .0065 (.0065) | |||||
| Constant | .1388** | .1331** | .134** | .126** | .1326** | .1292** | .1364** | .1326** | .1301** | .1236** |
| (.005) | (.006) | (.0048) | (.0058) | (.0051) | (.006) | (.005) | (.006) | (.0049) | (.0058) | |
| Number of Observations | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 |
Notes: Standard errors are shown in parentheses. Coefficient testing compares main effects and interactions with maternal education for each spending type. BA = bachelor's. AI = American Indian. AN = Alaska Native.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of cash spending at p < .05.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of tax credit spending at p < .05.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of health spending at p < .05.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of housing spending at p < .05.
†p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01