Regression of low birth weight on social spending and maternal education
| . | Total . | Cash . | Tax Credits . | Health . | Housing . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . |
| Spending Type | ||||||||||
| Total spending | –.0008** | –.0008** | ||||||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | |||||||||
| Cash | –.0015**b,c,d | –.0014**b,c,d | ||||||||
| (.0002) | (.0002) | |||||||||
| Tax credits | .001a,d | .0019†a,c,d | ||||||||
| (.001) | (.0011) | |||||||||
| Health | –.0004†a,d | –.0006*a,b,d | ||||||||
| (.0003) | (.0003) | |||||||||
| Housing | –.0033**a,b,c | –.003**a,b,c | ||||||||
| (.0006) | (.0006) | |||||||||
| Maternal Education (ref. = less than high school) | ||||||||||
| High school | –.0067** | –.0069** | –.0066** | –.0067** | –.0045** | –.0048** | –.0076** | –.0078** | –.0067** | –.0068** |
| (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0009) | (.0009) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Some college | –.0128** | –.0131** | –.0124** | –.0126** | –.0071** | –.0075** | –.013** | –.0134** | –.0112** | –.0114** |
| (.0011) | (.0011) | (.0009) | (.0009) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0011) | (.0011) | (.0008) | (.0008) | |
| BA or higher | –.0155** | –.0159** | –.016** | –.0163** | –.0063** | –.0066** | –.0142** | –.0146** | –.0136** | –.0137** |
| (.0015) | (.0014) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0016) | (.0016) | (.0015) | (.0015) | (.0012) | (.0012) | |
| Interactions | ||||||||||
| High school × spending | 0 | 0 | 0b | 0b | –.0016**a,c | –.0015**a,c | .0001b | .0002b | –.0002 | –.0001 |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Some college × spending | .0003** | .0004** | .0008**b | .0008**b | –.0021**a,c,d | –.002**a,c,d | .0007**b | .0007**b | .0018**b | .0018**b |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0006) | (.0006) | |
| BA or higher × spending | .0005** | .0005** | .0016**b,c,d | .0016**b,c,d | –.0037**a,c,d | –.0038**a,c,d | .0001a,b,d | .0001a,b,d | .0035**a,b,c | .0035**a,b,c |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Main Controls | ||||||||||
| Average maternal age | –.002** | –.0021** | –.0024** | –.0025** | –.0033** | –.0035** | –.0023** | –.0024** | –.0022** | –.0023** |
| (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0003) | (.0003) | |
| Average paternal age | .001** | .001** | .0013** | .0014** | .0016** | .0017** | .0011** | .0011** | .001** | .0011** |
| (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | |
| Proportion of births to married couples | –.0386** (.0019) | –.0372** (.0019) | –.0376** (.0018) | –.0363** (.0018) | –.03** (.002) | –.0281** (.0021) | –.0336** (.002) | –.0322** (.002) | –.0366** (.0018) | –.0355** (.0018) |
| Total number of births | 0** | 0** | 0** | 0** | 0 | 0† | 0** | 0** | 0** | 0** |
| (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | |
| Proportion of births to Black mothers | .042** (.0021) | .0423** (.0021) | .0422** (.0021) | .0423** (.0021) | .0424** (.0021) | .0426** (.0021) | .0426** (.0021) | .0427** (.0021) | .0447** (.0021) | .0449** (.0021) |
| Proportion of births to AI/AN mothers | –.0353** (.0043) | –.0348** (.0043) | –.035**(.0042) | –.0345**(.0042) | –.0327**(.0043) | –.0323**(.0043) | –.0351**(.0043) | –.0347**(.0043) | –.0353**(.0043) | –.0353**(.0043) |
| Proportion of births to Asian mothers | .0284** | .0274** | .0243** | .0233** | .0286** | .0277** | .0306** | .0298** | .0291** | .0284** |
| (.0027) | (.0027) | (.0026) | (.0026) | (.0026) | (.0026) | (.0027) | (.0027) | (.0026) | (.0027) | |
| Proportion of births to Hispanic mothers | –.0251** | –.0254** | –.0252** | –.0256** | –.0248** | –.0251** | –.0256** | –.0259** | –.0244** | –.0247** |
| (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | |
| State-Level Controls | ||||||||||
| Unemployment rate | –.0003** | –.0003** | –.0003** | –.0003** | –.0003** | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Poverty rate | .0001 | .0001 | .0001 | .0001 | .0001† | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Minimum wage | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Proportion of Black residents | –.0072 | –.0038 | –.0071 | –.0069 | –.0087 | |||||
| (.0061) | (.0061) | (.0062) | (.0062) | (.0062) | ||||||
| Proportion of Hispanic residents | .0185** | .0207** | .0205** | .0199** | .0176** | |||||
| (.0044) | (.0044) | (.0044) | (.0045) | (.0044) | ||||||
| Proportion of residents with a college degree | –.01* | –.0101* | –.011** | –.0109** | –.0085* | |||||
| (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0042) | (.0042) | ||||||
| Constant | .1272** | .1317** | .1255** | .1294** | .1301** | .1341** | .1247** | .1298** | .1251** | .1299** |
| (.0032) | (.0038) | (.0031) | (.0037) | (.0033) | (.0039) | (.0032) | (.0038) | (.0031) | (.0037) | |
| Number of Observations | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 |
| . | Total . | Cash . | Tax Credits . | Health . | Housing . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . | Model 1 . | Model 2 . |
| Spending Type | ||||||||||
| Total spending | –.0008** | –.0008** | ||||||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | |||||||||
| Cash | –.0015**b,c,d | –.0014**b,c,d | ||||||||
| (.0002) | (.0002) | |||||||||
| Tax credits | .001a,d | .0019†a,c,d | ||||||||
| (.001) | (.0011) | |||||||||
| Health | –.0004†a,d | –.0006*a,b,d | ||||||||
| (.0003) | (.0003) | |||||||||
| Housing | –.0033**a,b,c | –.003**a,b,c | ||||||||
| (.0006) | (.0006) | |||||||||
| Maternal Education (ref. = less than high school) | ||||||||||
| High school | –.0067** | –.0069** | –.0066** | –.0067** | –.0045** | –.0048** | –.0076** | –.0078** | –.0067** | –.0068** |
| (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0006) | (.0006) | (.0009) | (.0009) | (.0008) | (.0008) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Some college | –.0128** | –.0131** | –.0124** | –.0126** | –.0071** | –.0075** | –.013** | –.0134** | –.0112** | –.0114** |
| (.0011) | (.0011) | (.0009) | (.0009) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0011) | (.0011) | (.0008) | (.0008) | |
| BA or higher | –.0155** | –.0159** | –.016** | –.0163** | –.0063** | –.0066** | –.0142** | –.0146** | –.0136** | –.0137** |
| (.0015) | (.0014) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0016) | (.0016) | (.0015) | (.0015) | (.0012) | (.0012) | |
| Interactions | ||||||||||
| High school × spending | 0 | 0 | 0b | 0b | –.0016**a,c | –.0015**a,c | .0001b | .0002b | –.0002 | –.0001 |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Some college × spending | .0003** | .0004** | .0008**b | .0008**b | –.0021**a,c,d | –.002**a,c,d | .0007**b | .0007**b | .0018**b | .0018**b |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0006) | (.0006) | |
| BA or higher × spending | .0005** | .0005** | .0016**b,c,d | .0016**b,c,d | –.0037**a,c,d | –.0038**a,c,d | .0001a,b,d | .0001a,b,d | .0035**a,b,c | .0035**a,b,c |
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0005) | (.0005) | (.0002) | (.0002) | (.0005) | (.0005) | |
| Main Controls | ||||||||||
| Average maternal age | –.002** | –.0021** | –.0024** | –.0025** | –.0033** | –.0035** | –.0023** | –.0024** | –.0022** | –.0023** |
| (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0004) | (.0003) | (.0003) | |
| Average paternal age | .001** | .001** | .0013** | .0014** | .0016** | .0017** | .0011** | .0011** | .001** | .0011** |
| (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | (.0003) | |
| Proportion of births to married couples | –.0386** (.0019) | –.0372** (.0019) | –.0376** (.0018) | –.0363** (.0018) | –.03** (.002) | –.0281** (.0021) | –.0336** (.002) | –.0322** (.002) | –.0366** (.0018) | –.0355** (.0018) |
| Total number of births | 0** | 0** | 0** | 0** | 0 | 0† | 0** | 0** | 0** | 0** |
| (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | (0) | |
| Proportion of births to Black mothers | .042** (.0021) | .0423** (.0021) | .0422** (.0021) | .0423** (.0021) | .0424** (.0021) | .0426** (.0021) | .0426** (.0021) | .0427** (.0021) | .0447** (.0021) | .0449** (.0021) |
| Proportion of births to AI/AN mothers | –.0353** (.0043) | –.0348** (.0043) | –.035**(.0042) | –.0345**(.0042) | –.0327**(.0043) | –.0323**(.0043) | –.0351**(.0043) | –.0347**(.0043) | –.0353**(.0043) | –.0353**(.0043) |
| Proportion of births to Asian mothers | .0284** | .0274** | .0243** | .0233** | .0286** | .0277** | .0306** | .0298** | .0291** | .0284** |
| (.0027) | (.0027) | (.0026) | (.0026) | (.0026) | (.0026) | (.0027) | (.0027) | (.0026) | (.0027) | |
| Proportion of births to Hispanic mothers | –.0251** | –.0254** | –.0252** | –.0256** | –.0248** | –.0251** | –.0256** | –.0259** | –.0244** | –.0247** |
| (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | (.0012) | |
| State-Level Controls | ||||||||||
| Unemployment rate | –.0003** | –.0003** | –.0003** | –.0003** | –.0003** | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Poverty rate | .0001 | .0001 | .0001 | .0001 | .0001† | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Minimum wage | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |||||
| (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | (.0001) | ||||||
| Proportion of Black residents | –.0072 | –.0038 | –.0071 | –.0069 | –.0087 | |||||
| (.0061) | (.0061) | (.0062) | (.0062) | (.0062) | ||||||
| Proportion of Hispanic residents | .0185** | .0207** | .0205** | .0199** | .0176** | |||||
| (.0044) | (.0044) | (.0044) | (.0045) | (.0044) | ||||||
| Proportion of residents with a college degree | –.01* | –.0101* | –.011** | –.0109** | –.0085* | |||||
| (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0041) | (.0042) | (.0042) | ||||||
| Constant | .1272** | .1317** | .1255** | .1294** | .1301** | .1341** | .1247** | .1298** | .1251** | .1299** |
| (.0032) | (.0038) | (.0031) | (.0037) | (.0033) | (.0039) | (.0032) | (.0038) | (.0031) | (.0037) | |
| Number of Observations | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 | 4,076 |
Notes: Standard errors are shown in parentheses. Coefficient testing compares main effects and interactions with maternal education for each spending type. BA = bachelor's. AI = American Indian. AN = Alaska Native.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of cash spending at p < .05.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of tax credit spending at p < .05.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of health spending at p < .05.
Indicates that the coefficient differs significantly from that of housing spending at p < .05.
†p < .10; *p < .05; **p < .01