Duke University Press

Table 3

Marginal structural models: Effect of cumulative, long-term exposure to neighborhood police stops on high school graduation, by race/ethnicity

				Difference in Effects^a
	Black	Latino	White	B–W	L–W	L–B
Cumulative SQF Exposure (ref. = very low)
Low	−0.023^***	−0.024^***	−0.012^**	0.011	0.012	−0.001
	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Average	−0.051^***	−0.041^***	−0.012	0.039^***	0.029^***	0.010
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.008)	(0.010)
High	−0.066^***	−0.049^***	−0.021^*	0.045^***	0.028^*	0.017
	(0.009)	(0.007)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.011)
Very high	−0.088^***	−0.047^***	−0.034	0.053^*	0.013	0.041^*
	(0.013)	(0.010)	(0.018)	(0.022)	(0.020)	(0.017)
Student Characteristics
Female	0.056^***	0.038^***	0.032^***	−0.024^***	−0.006	−0.018^**
	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.007)	(0.005)	(0.006)
Free or reduced lunch	−0.043^***	−0.032^***	−0.039^***	0.004	−0.007	0.012
	(0.010)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.006)	(0.010)
English learner status	0.038	0.026^***	0.023^***	−0.014	−0.003	−0.012
	(0.023)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.025)	(0.006)	(0.023)
ELA score at t = 0	0.048^***	0.042^***	0.013^***	−0.035^***	−0.029^***	−0.006
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.004)
Math score at t = 0	0.101^***	0.110^***	0.063^***	−0.038^***	−0.047^***	0.009^*
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.004)
School police stops (log)	−0.015^**	−0.002	−0.013^***	0.002	−0.011^*	0.013^*
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)
Neighborhood Characteristics
Population size	0.004	0.004	0.007^**	0.003	0.003	−0.001
	(0.005)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.006)	(0.004)	(0.007)
Residential instability	0.009	0.007	−0.002	−0.011	−0.009	0.013^*
	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)
Concentrated disadvantage	−0.013^*	−0.013^**	−0.008	0.004	−0.004	0.000
	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.007)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.007)
Percentage Black	0.017	−0.001	−0.031^***	−0.048^***	−0.030^**	−0.018
	(0.012)	(0.005)	(0.009)	(0.013)	(0.010)	(0.012)
Percentage Asian	0.000	0.002	−0.002	−0.002	−0.004	0.002
	(0.009)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.009)	(0.003)	(0.009)
Percentage Latino	0.006	0.002	−0.010	−0.016	−0.012	−0.005
	(0.010)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.009)	(0.010)
Percentage other	−0.001	−0.004	−0.005	−0.004	−0.001	−0.002
	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.003)
Cohort and Precinct Fixed Effects	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Number of Observations	85,490	109,291	36,396	231,177	231,177	231,177

				Difference in Effects^a
	Black	Latino	White	B–W	L–W	L–B
Cumulative SQF Exposure (ref. = very low)
Low	−0.023^***	−0.024^***	−0.012^**	0.011	0.012	−0.001
	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.007)	(0.007)
Average	−0.051^***	−0.041^***	−0.012	0.039^***	0.029^***	0.010
	(0.007)	(0.006)	(0.006)	(0.010)	(0.008)	(0.010)
High	−0.066^***	−0.049^***	−0.021^*	0.045^***	0.028^*	0.017
	(0.009)	(0.007)	(0.010)	(0.013)	(0.013)	(0.011)
Very high	−0.088^***	−0.047^***	−0.034	0.053^*	0.013	0.041^*
	(0.013)	(0.010)	(0.018)	(0.022)	(0.020)	(0.017)
Student Characteristics
Female	0.056^***	0.038^***	0.032^***	−0.024^***	−0.006	−0.018^**
	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.007)	(0.005)	(0.006)
Free or reduced lunch	−0.043^***	−0.032^***	−0.039^***	0.004	−0.007	0.012
	(0.010)	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.010)	(0.006)	(0.010)
English learner status	0.038	0.026^***	0.023^***	−0.014	−0.003	−0.012
	(0.023)	(0.004)	(0.005)	(0.025)	(0.006)	(0.023)
ELA score at t = 0	0.048^***	0.042^***	0.013^***	−0.035^***	−0.029^***	−0.006
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.004)
Math score at t = 0	0.101^***	0.110^***	0.063^***	−0.038^***	−0.047^***	0.009^*
	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.002)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.004)
School police stops (log)	−0.015^**	−0.002	−0.013^***	0.002	−0.011^*	0.013^*
	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)
Neighborhood Characteristics
Population size	0.004	0.004	0.007^**	0.003	0.003	−0.001
	(0.005)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.006)	(0.004)	(0.007)
Residential instability	0.009	0.007	−0.002	−0.011	−0.009	0.013^*
	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.003)	(0.006)	(0.005)	(0.006)
Concentrated disadvantage	−0.013^*	−0.013^**	−0.008	0.004	−0.004	0.000
	(0.005)	(0.004)	(0.007)	(0.008)	(0.008)	(0.007)
Percentage Black	0.017	−0.001	−0.031^***	−0.048^***	−0.030^**	−0.018
	(0.012)	(0.005)	(0.009)	(0.013)	(0.010)	(0.012)
Percentage Asian	0.000	0.002	−0.002	−0.002	−0.004	0.002
	(0.009)	(0.002)	(0.002)	(0.009)	(0.003)	(0.009)
Percentage Latino	0.006	0.002	−0.010	−0.016	−0.012	−0.005
	(0.010)	(0.005)	(0.007)	(0.013)	(0.009)	(0.010)
Percentage other	−0.001	−0.004	−0.005	−0.004	−0.001	−0.002
	(0.002)	(0.003)	(0.003)	(0.004)	(0.004)	(0.003)
Cohort and Precinct Fixed Effects	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔	✔
Number of Observations	85,490	109,291	36,396	231,177	231,177	231,177

Notes: Standard errors are shown in parentheses. SQF = Stop, Question, and Frisk.

The effect differences across groups are based on fully interactive models.

p < .05; ^**p < .01; ^***p < .001

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