Table 4

Maximum likelihood fixed-effect coefficients: Mortality risk regressed on female political empowerment, political infrastructure index, logged GDP per capita, and their interaction, along with select control variables

Neonatal MortalityInfant MortalityChild MortalityMaternal Mortality
(1)(2)(3)(4)
Logged GDP per capita (development indicator) –3.491***
(0.456) 
–10.046***
(1.360) 
–17.980***
(2.702) 
–62.512***
(12.929) 
Percentage of Women in Parliament (ref. = <10 %) 
 10 % to 19 % –1.213
(2.973) 
–1.615
(8.499) 
–17.475
(17.980) 
–81.654
(93.163) 
 20 % to 29 % –4.678
(2.834) 
–30.209***
(8.420) 
–70.561***
(15.601) 
–381.870***
(64.587) 
 30 % or more –17.845***
(4.380) 
–97.316***
(11.060) 
–192.376***
(20.458) 
–1,125.844***
(189.076) 
Extent of Democracy –0.557*
(0.287) 
–3.045***
(0.715) 
–6.317***
(1.473) 
–27.227***
(9.207) 
Interactions     
 Extent of democracy × Percentage of women in parliament: 10 % to 19 % –0.887**
(0.360) 
–2.202**
(0.860) 
–3.229**
(1.633) 
–9.664
(9.138) 
 Extent of democracy × Percentage of women in parliament: 20 % to 29 % –0.972***
(0.341) 
–0.254
(0.843) 
–0.125
(1.535) 
22.864***
(7.723) 
 Extent of democracy × Percentage of women in parliament: 30 % or more 0.229
(0.577) 
6.193***
(1.502) 
13.788***
(2.629) 
96.174***
(28.901) 
 Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 10 % to 19 % 0.177
(0.395) 
0.147
(1.168) 
2.147
(2.396) 
10.851
(12.446) 
 Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 20 % to 29 % 0.426
(0.395) 
3.672***
(1.101) 
8.761***
(2.028) 
46.100***
(9.241) 
 Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 30 % or more 2.051***
(0.570) 
11.582***
(1.458) 
23.182***
(2.680) 
132.210***
(21.576) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator 0.079**
(0.039) 
0.385***
(0.097) 
0.801***
(0.190) 
3.480***
(1.195) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 10 % to 19 % 0.094*
(0.047) 
0.257*
(0.120) 
0.353
(0.227) 
0.938
(1.259) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 20 % to 29 % 0.114*
(0.045) 
0.002
(0.100) 
–0.074
(0.180) 
–2.847***
(1.014) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 30 % or more –0.030
(0.066) 
–0.750***
(0.165) 
–1.656***
(0.285) 
–11.227***
(3.118) 
Control Variables 
 Crude birth rate 0.265***
(0.095) 
0.793***
(0.233) 
1.313***
(0.444) 
7.313***
(2.061) 
 Dependency ratio –0.010
(0.042) 
–0.178
(0.127) 
–0.664**
(0.277) 
–2.108**
(0.942) 
 Extent of mass education –1.510**
(0.623) 
–2.476*
(1.403) 
–3.527
(2.641) 
7.921
(11.475) 
 Gender parity in secondary enrollment –28.202***
(4.524) 
–66.762***
(11.234) 
–139.705***
(23.331) 
–513.368***
(92.497) 
 Female labor force participation –0.027
(0.047) 
–0.211*
(0.112) 
–0.625**
(0.273) 
–0.688
(0.718) 
 Urbanization –0.029
(0.067) 
0.120
(0.166) 
0.096
(0.311) 
–0.729
(1.535) 
 Exposure to war index 0.162
(0.103) 
0.068
(0.291) 
0.042
(0.529) 
3.134
(3.253) 
 Logged NGOs –0.587***
(0.209) 
–0.912**
(0.421) 
–1.226*
(0.738) 
–1.019
(2.413) 
 Logged GDP per capita — — — — 
 Constant 73.087***
(10.150) 
178.589***
(25.084) 
367.419***
(61.787) 
1,235.500***
(176.945) 
Number of Observations 2,387 2,387 2,387 2,387 
Number of Countries 155 155 155 155 
Neonatal MortalityInfant MortalityChild MortalityMaternal Mortality
(1)(2)(3)(4)
Logged GDP per capita (development indicator) –3.491***
(0.456) 
–10.046***
(1.360) 
–17.980***
(2.702) 
–62.512***
(12.929) 
Percentage of Women in Parliament (ref. = <10 %) 
 10 % to 19 % –1.213
(2.973) 
–1.615
(8.499) 
–17.475
(17.980) 
–81.654
(93.163) 
 20 % to 29 % –4.678
(2.834) 
–30.209***
(8.420) 
–70.561***
(15.601) 
–381.870***
(64.587) 
 30 % or more –17.845***
(4.380) 
–97.316***
(11.060) 
–192.376***
(20.458) 
–1,125.844***
(189.076) 
Extent of Democracy –0.557*
(0.287) 
–3.045***
(0.715) 
–6.317***
(1.473) 
–27.227***
(9.207) 
Interactions     
 Extent of democracy × Percentage of women in parliament: 10 % to 19 % –0.887**
(0.360) 
–2.202**
(0.860) 
–3.229**
(1.633) 
–9.664
(9.138) 
 Extent of democracy × Percentage of women in parliament: 20 % to 29 % –0.972***
(0.341) 
–0.254
(0.843) 
–0.125
(1.535) 
22.864***
(7.723) 
 Extent of democracy × Percentage of women in parliament: 30 % or more 0.229
(0.577) 
6.193***
(1.502) 
13.788***
(2.629) 
96.174***
(28.901) 
 Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 10 % to 19 % 0.177
(0.395) 
0.147
(1.168) 
2.147
(2.396) 
10.851
(12.446) 
 Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 20 % to 29 % 0.426
(0.395) 
3.672***
(1.101) 
8.761***
(2.028) 
46.100***
(9.241) 
 Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 30 % or more 2.051***
(0.570) 
11.582***
(1.458) 
23.182***
(2.680) 
132.210***
(21.576) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator 0.079**
(0.039) 
0.385***
(0.097) 
0.801***
(0.190) 
3.480***
(1.195) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 10 % to 19 % 0.094*
(0.047) 
0.257*
(0.120) 
0.353
(0.227) 
0.938
(1.259) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 20 % to 29 % 0.114*
(0.045) 
0.002
(0.100) 
–0.074
(0.180) 
–2.847***
(1.014) 
 Extent of democracy × Development indicator × Percentage of women in parliament: 30 % or more –0.030
(0.066) 
–0.750***
(0.165) 
–1.656***
(0.285) 
–11.227***
(3.118) 
Control Variables 
 Crude birth rate 0.265***
(0.095) 
0.793***
(0.233) 
1.313***
(0.444) 
7.313***
(2.061) 
 Dependency ratio –0.010
(0.042) 
–0.178
(0.127) 
–0.664**
(0.277) 
–2.108**
(0.942) 
 Extent of mass education –1.510**
(0.623) 
–2.476*
(1.403) 
–3.527
(2.641) 
7.921
(11.475) 
 Gender parity in secondary enrollment –28.202***
(4.524) 
–66.762***
(11.234) 
–139.705***
(23.331) 
–513.368***
(92.497) 
 Female labor force participation –0.027
(0.047) 
–0.211*
(0.112) 
–0.625**
(0.273) 
–0.688
(0.718) 
 Urbanization –0.029
(0.067) 
0.120
(0.166) 
0.096
(0.311) 
–0.729
(1.535) 
 Exposure to war index 0.162
(0.103) 
0.068
(0.291) 
0.042
(0.529) 
3.134
(3.253) 
 Logged NGOs –0.587***
(0.209) 
–0.912**
(0.421) 
–1.226*
(0.738) 
–1.019
(2.413) 
 Logged GDP per capita — — — — 
 Constant 73.087***
(10.150) 
178.589***
(25.084) 
367.419***
(61.787) 
1,235.500***
(176.945) 
Number of Observations 2,387 2,387 2,387 2,387 
Number of Countries 155 155 155 155 

Note: Robust standard errors are shown in parentheses.

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001

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