Abstract

At the time of the Revolution of 1911, as many as ten million Chinese lived abroad. The great majority were poor coolies but a minority had already moved into the business pursuits for which they are well known today. Within this group, particularly in Southeast Asia, could be found a stratum of very wealthy merchants. Because few individuals viewed their expatriation as permanent but rather sought to identify with the homeland and its culture, there had been considerable interest in the events of the late Ch'ing period. It is widely assumed that the multitude actively opposed the Manchu regime and gave its support to the reform and revolutionary movements encouraged by K'ang Yu-wei and Sun Yat-sen. This traditional conclusion is, however, unfounded. Although most overseas Chinese had lost faith in Manchu leadership by 1909, only a small percentage took political action. In fact there was a time, forgotten by some historians, when prosperous merchants abroad wanted closer relations with the Ch'ing dynasty.

Notes

1

For a short history of the Chinese attitude toward those abroad, sec: Shih-ju Tso ,
Hua-ch'iao kuo-chieh wen-t'i
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The Relation of China to her Nationals Abroad
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and
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2

Ch'ou-pan i-wu shih-mo
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Peking
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3

Campbell Persia Crawford ,
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4

For the Ch'en mission and its results, see Morse Hosca Ballou ,
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London
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China's first delegation to the West, a semi official venture composed of low ranking mandarins which embarked in 1866 was led by Robert Hart, then beginning a long career in Ch'ing service. Two years later, the Chinese engaged the American Anson Burlingame to escort two technically equal envoys of a grand tour of the world. When this delegation returned to China in 1870, minus Burlingame who died abroad, the first all Chinese mission departed.

5

IWSM, TC 55:21b.

6

The precise circumstances surrounding the appointment arc obscure but it is said that Hoo (called “Whampoa”) possessed a special uniform and a sword awarded by the Russians. See

Siang Song Ong ,
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7

1WSM, TC 55:22.

8

Kuo Sung-iao reierred to Hoo as a tao yuan so it seems certain that he already held a brevet ChSng rank. It should be no surprise to learn that he ultimately received British recognition (C.M.G.) as well.

9

WC5L, KH 11:13–15 and 30b–31b.

10

A scholarly piece has been done on (he early Singapore consulate. See Chi Wen Chung , “The Nineteenth Century Imperial Chinese Consulate in the Straits Settlements” (unpublished M.A. thesis;
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1964
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There are also two short but informative articles by
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Tso Tzu-hsing ling-shih tui Hsin-chia-po hua-ch'iao te kung hsien
” (Consul Tso Tzu-hsing's contribution to the Singapore Chinese),
vol. 15
(June
1959
),
12
–
21
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and
“
Hsin-chia-po Chung-kuo ling-shih she chih shih
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–
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11

For a splendid history of the Lat Pau, read Hock Chen Mong ,
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12

Ching-hwang Yen , “
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Singapore Free Press, 4 July 1885 and ihe discussion in Wen Chung Chi, 108–11:.

14

Lat Pau (Singapore). 29 February 1888 and 12 August 1889. Song Ong Siang. 220.

15

See WCSL, KH 2:15–19.

16

WCSL, KH 14:32.

17

WCSL. KH 15:7–8b; 25:22–23; 3:22; 134; 20. See also

Ch'ing-ch'ao hsü wen-hsien t‘ung-k‘ao
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18

WCSL. KH 84:1–7b. For a detailed account if the circumstances leading up to this action, see

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1965
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19

Chang Wen-hsiang-kung chüan-chi
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Taipei
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1963
), hereafter cited as CWHKCC,
13
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12
–
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See also CCHWHTK. vol. 4, 10795–97.

20

For the prototype school, see WCSL, KH 70:10–11.

21

WCSL, KH 74:22–27 and 75:18b–21b. CCHWHTK. vol. 4. 10795–97. See also
the material in Chang Yü-nan and Chang Hung-nan
,
Hai-kuo kung-yü chi lu
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4
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22

Fu-ch'eng Hsueh ,
Ch'u-shih Ying, Fa, Yi, Pi, ssu-kuo jih-chi
(diary of an embassy to the four countries of
England, France, Italy and Belgium
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8b
–
9
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23

WCSL, KH 83:33b–37 and CCHWHTK, vol. I, 10801–3.

24

WCSL, KH66:9b–12.

25

WCSL, KH 84:10–11 and 28b–30b.

26

See the narrative in Wickberg, 224–33.

27

See Hummel Arthur W. , ed.,
Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period
(Reprint:
Taipei
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1970
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28

Wen Chung Chi, 196–202.

29

G.T. Hare dispatch number
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30

Pan Lat , 5 December 1894. For the general British reaction consult the
Straits Times
(
Singapore
),
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3 and 4 December 1894 and the
Times
(
London
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1895
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31

Straits Times, 30 January 1894. WCSL, KH 87:14b–17b.

32

Ta-Ch'ing li-eh'ao shih-lu
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Tokyo
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1937
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33

For a detailed account of Chang's career, see the author's “The Mandarin-Capitalists from Nanyang: Overseas Chinese Enterprise and the Modernization of China, 1893–1911” (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Brown University
,
1973
).
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Biographical Dictionary of Republican China
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New York
,
1967
),
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,
90
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92
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See also
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Ma Hsing Hnajcn chih
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Hong Kong
,
1966
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34

Lat Pau, 12 August 1889 makes reference to flood relief.

35

Penang Sin Poe, 8 May 1889.

36

Lat Pau, 17 July 1894.

37

Yao Wong , 52 or
Hsin-chia-po ch–a-yang hui-fown pai-nien chi-nien k‘n
(“
Char Yong Association 100th Anniversary Celebration
;”
Singapore
), 9.
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38

Straits Times, 16 February 1895.

39

Wong Yao, 52.

40

Straits Times, 7 and 8 April 1896.

41

Lat Pau, 3 June 1890.

42

See the important contribution of Albert Feuerwcrker ,
China's Early Industrialization: Sheng Hsuan-huai (1844–1916) and Mandarin Enterprise
(
Cambridge, Mass.
,
1958
).
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43

CCHWHTK, vol. 4, 11323; Penang Sin Poe, 3 December 1895 and 8–10 March 1899. The Penang Chinese press obtained a copy of the company prospectus which it published in full. There is a short English language description including valuable photographs in

Arnold Wright , ed.,
Twentieth Century impressions of Hong Kong, Shanghai and other Treaty Ports of China
(
London
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44

Shih-lu, KH 420:15 and CCHWHTK, vol. 4, 11300.

45

CWNKCC, Draft Telegrams, 27:13 and yü-chai ts'tin-hao (collected papers of Shcng Hsuan-huai; Taipei, 1963), hereafter cited as YCTK, 25:40–5 and 7.

See also
Li Kuo-ch'i Chnng-kuo tsao-ch't t'ieh-lu ching-ying
(the early management of China's railroads;
Taipei
,
1961
),
137
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46

YCTK, 26:1b.

47

YCTK, 33:5b–6 and Lat Pan, 26 and 27 July 1898.

48

For further discussion of these activities, see the author's “
Chang Pi-shih and Nanyang Chinese Involvement in South China's Railroads
, 1896–1911,”
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies
(March
1973
),
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–
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49

Tan Ee Leong , “
The Chinese Banks Incorporated in Singapore and Malaya
,”
Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Astatic Society
(July
1953
) 113 suggests that Chang was actually the largest private shareholder. A good history of the bank can be read in Fcuerwcrker,
225
–41. Material on Chang–s role in panicular is also available in the Lat Pan throughout February and March 1897. There were even reports that Shcng intended to make him chief director. See the Strain Times, 5 September 1898.
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50

Lat Pan, 19 November and Penang Sin Poe, 22 November 1904. Sec also Tung-hua hsü-lu (the Tung-hua records continued for the Kuang-hsü period; Shanghai, 1909), hereafter cited as THHL, 193:6b.

51

Lat Pan, 26 April 1900.

52

Straits Times, 19 August and Lat Pan, 22 August 1901.

53

Penang Sin Poe, 22 November 1902.

54

Shih-lu, KH 512:17b and 516:4b–5b; THHL, 178:11b

55

Las Pau, II August and Penang Sin Poe, II August and 31 October 1903.

56

Shih-ln, KH 527:1b.

57

THHL, 189:8b; Shih-lu, KH 535:6b; Lat Pau, 19 November 1904 and Penang Sin Poe, 29 October and 22 November 1904.

58

Shih-lu, KH 535:6b and 541:4. Penang Sin Poe, 16 December 1904.

59

THHL, 190:1–2 and Shih-lu, KH 517:66–7. For the full contents of Chang's twelve part memorial, see either Lai Pan or Penang Sin Poe. December 1905 to February 1906. The document is also summarized in “The Mandarin-Capitalists from Nanyang.”

60

Ibid, and in particular, Penang Sin Poe. 22 ind 23 Dccemrxr 1905.

61

Lim Boon Keng “
The Role of the Babas in the Development of China
,”
Straits Chinese Maga-zine
, vol.
8
(
1904
),
94
–
100
.
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For an outline of his career, see Boorman , ed.,
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386
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62

Straits Chinese Magazine, vol. 2 (1898), 104. Liu (known as Lew Yuk Lin) was a real favorite of (he British and of great assistance to Chang Pi-shih. Originally brought out to help Huang, he was an unmistakable progressive educated at America's Andover Academy with a useful five years at the New York City consulate. Because Chang spent as much time in China as in Nanyang, Liu frequently functioned as the ranking Ch'ing official in Southeast Asia until his transfer to London at the end of the century.

63

Wong Yao, 57. Penang Sin Poe, 1 and 4 July and 20 December 1904.

64

Shih-lu, KH 536:6; CCHWHTK, vol. 2, 8717; Penang Sin Poe, 16 December 1904.

65

THHL, 153:13b–15, 156:4, 184:2.CCHWHTK, vol. 4, 11398.

66

THHL, 178:11 and 184:2b.

67

Penang Sin Poe, 23 December 1905 or Lat Pau, 14 February 1906.

68

Penang Sin Poe, 28 and 29 December 1905.

69

THHL, 190:1b

70

The fact that Chang was willing to finance the bureau himself may well have played a part in the decision. See THHL, 189:8b and Shih-lu, KH 535:6b.

71

Penang Sin Poe, 22 December 1903 and 28 March 1905. Hsieh Pin, Ckung-kuo t'ieh-tao shih (history of Chinese railways; Shanghai, 1929), 464; Feuerwerker, 235; Shang-wu kuan-pao (commercial gazette; Peking, 1907–1908), no. 5 (1907), 9b–10; and Ch'ao-choti chih: chiao-t'ung chih (Chaochow gazate–er: essay on communications), 52b.

72

See, for example, Penang Sin Poe, II and 18 March and 16 December 1905 and the Lat Pau, 3 March 1905.

73

Penang Sin Poe, 20 March 1905.

74

See Feuerwerker, 70–71.

75

THHL, I94:I2b–I3b.

76

The address was preserved in Penang Sin Poe, 6 December 1905.

77

See Song Ong Siang, 387 and lat Pau, 8 and 13 December 1905.

78

Hsin-chia-po Chung-hua tsung shang-hui hsin ta-hsia lo ch'eng chi-nien k'an (“Souvenir of the Opening of the Newly Completed Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce Building;” Singapore, 1964), 105–210. Events can be followed more closely in the December issues of Lat Pau as well as in April and 3 August 1906.

79

Lat Pau, 3 August and Penang Sin Poe, 20 July 1906. For the complete document consult Shang-wu kuan-pao, no. 1 (1907), 9.

80

Shang-wu kuan-pao, no. 14 (1907), 5.

81

See the pioneering study by Williams Lea E. ,
Overseas Chinese Nationalism: The Genesis of the Pan-Chinese Movement in Indonesia
,
1900
–
1916
(
Glencoe
. III.,
1960
).
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82

For example, kuan-pao Shang-wu , no. 25 (
1907
), 4 and no. 32 (
1908
), 6;
Cheng-chih kuan-pao
(
political gazette
;
Peking
), no. 488 (
1909
), 6; no.
535
(
1909
).
4
–
5
and no.
584
(
1909
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83

Skinner G. William ,
Chinese Society in Thailand: An Analytical History
(
Ithaca
,
New York
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1957
),
170
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84

Fei-li-pin Man-li-na Chung-hua thang-hui san-rhih chou-nien chi-nien k'an
(Thirtieth anniversary publication of the Manila,
Philippines
,
Chinese Chamber of Commerce
;
Manila
,
1936
), 56. See also
Shang-wu kuan-pao
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1908
), 4.
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85

Straits Times, 25 November 1907.

86

Hsin-chia-po Chung-hua tsung shang-hui, 145.

87

Ibid, 152; Penang Sin Poe, 14 December 1907; and Straits Timer, 8 October and 9 Decernber 1907.

88

Hsin-chia-po Chung-hua tiling shang hui, 151
; Patt Lot , 11 September and 16 August
1906
and advertisements run in December
1908
and June
1909
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89

Pan Lat , to October
1907
.
Shang-wu kuan-pao
, no. 21 (
1907
),
9b
–
10
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90

Hsin-chia-po Chung-hua isung shang-hui
, 152; Pan Lat , 2 and 13 October
1907
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91

Fei-li-pin Chung-hua shang-hui, 57.

92

For the career of Chang Yü-nan, see “The Mandarin-Capitalists from Nanyang.”

93

Chung-kuo chin-tai huo-pi shih tzu-liao
(
ma-tcrials on the history of modern Chinese currency
:
Peking
,
1964
),
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94

For an in depth treatment of the overseas Chinese stake, see, “Chang Pi-shih and Nanyang Chinese involvement in South China's Railroads.“

95

Lat Pau, 16 January and 22 February 1907.

96

Straits Times, 29 May, 26 June, 10 July and 1 October 1908 as well as Williams, 56.

97

Straits Times, 9 June, 30 July, 6 august 1908 anil 15 December 1909.

98

Fei-li-pin Chung-hua shang-hui, 156 and Hsin-chia-po Chung-hua Isung thang-hui, 152–54. See also Straits Times, 21 and 28 May 1907, 14 and 17 July 1908.

99

Shang-wu kuan-pao
, no.
13
(
1907
),
17b
–
20b
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100

Hsin-chia-po Chnng-hua tsung shang-hui, 151–53 and Lat Pau, 1 November 1907.

101

Penang Sin Poe, 33 March, 27 June 1914 and 1 May 1915. Chang consequently earned a seat in the Legislative Assembly (Li-fa hui) and inclusion in the State Council (Ts'an-cheng yuan).

102

Tou-teng yi-yuan and wu~tcng yi-yuan respectively. See CCHWHTK, vol. 4, 11405.

103

A general schedule for imperial rewards follows: 20,000,000 yuan—;first class viscount (yi-teng tzu-chüeh); 18,000,000 yuan—second class viscount; 16,000,000 yuan—third class viscount; 14,000,000 yuan—first class baron (yi-tcng nan-chiieh); 12,000,000 yuan—second class baron; and 10,000,000 yuan—third class baron; 7,000,000 yuan—third rank official (son p'in ch'ing); 5,000,000—fourth rank official; and 3,000,000 yuan—fifth rank official. Sec CCHWHTK, vol. 4. 11406.

104

Cited in Straits Times, 4 June 1907.

105

Shang-wu kttan-pao, no. 32 (1908), 4; Straits Chinese Magazine, vol. 11 (1907), 161–64; Lat Pau, 3, 5, 10, 11 December 1907.

106

Ibid, but see also Shih-lu. KH 588:9b; THHL, 215:7 and Lat Pau, 6 and 27 April 1908. Yang's report can be located in THHL, 2i4:I7–I8b or WCSL, KH 210:10–14.

107

Straits Times, 1 May 1908; Shih-lu, KH 588:14b.

108

Penang Sin Poe, 5 May 1908; THHL, 215:7; Shih-lu, KH 588:9b.

109

Williams, 155–57; Lat Pau, 4 January and 11 July 1908.

110

Williams, 158.

111

“Hu Han-min chiang-shu nan-yang hua-ch'iao tsan-chia kc-ming chih ching kuo,” (Hu Han-min's speech on the participation of the overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia in the Revolution) in

Tzu-yu Feng ,
Ke-ming yi-shih
(
historical sketches of the revolution
;
Taipei
,
1965
),
233
–
36
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112

See Gungwu Wang , –
Chinese Reformists and Revolutionaries in the Straits Settlements 1900–1911
” (unpublished academic exercise;
University of Singapore
,
1953
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113

Straits Times, 14, 21 and 28 October 1907.

114

Wang Gungwu concluded after a prolonged study of Sun and bis agents in the Straits Settlements that less than four million dollars was raised. See “Chinese Reformists and Revolutionaries.”

115

Penang Sin Poe, 22, 26, 27 and 30 April 1912. Hsin-chia-po Chung-hua tsung shang-hui, 54.

116

Penang Sin Poe, 15 July 1907; THHL, 216: 14b–15; Shih-lu, HT, 49:8; Shang-wu kuan-pao, no. 14 (1907), 6; and CCHWHTK, vol. 4, 11417.

117

The group, supported by Chinese merchants in America, Australia and Southeast Asia, called itself the United Overseas Chinese Development Company (Lien-ho wai-yang hua-ch‘iao ch‘ung-she chen Hua kung-ssu). It hoped to raise 3,000,000 dollars overseas as the beginning of a scheme to open mines, plantations, steamship lines, banks and railroads. See Penang Sin Poe, 1 August 1908.

118

Lat Pau, 2 October 1907.

119

Fincher John , “Political Provincialism and the National Revolution” in
Mary Wright
, ed.,
China in Revolution: the First Phase
, 1900–1913 (
New Haven
,
1968
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198
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203
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120

Penang Sin Poe, 16 April, 23 November, 4 and 18 December 1906, and 25 and 26 July 1907; Lat Pau, 9 April 1906 and 26 fuly 1907; Straits Times, 6 April 1906 and 26 July 1907. For Foo's biography, consult “The Mandarin-Capitalists from Nanyang.”

122

Chiao hang tsung Itung-ssu and Ch‘ao feng kung-ssu respectively. For details and the appropriate memorials, see Shih-lu, KH 588:8b, 9b; Cheng-chih kuan-pao, no. 297 (1908), 7–14; THHL, 2i8:i4–i6b. See also the accounis in Penang Sin Poe, 5 and 26 May and 19 and 22 September and 3 October 1908.

123

Lat Pau, 5 April 1908; Penang Sin Poe, 4 May 1909.

124

Cheng-chih kuan-pao, no. 297 (1909), 14 and Li En-han, 363.

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