Fig. 1 Causal directed acyclic graph, showing the age effect (α*), cohort effect (θ*), and the period effect (the β*s). The bold arrows represent deterministic relationships, and the nonbold arrows represent stochastic relationships More

Fig. 3 Causal directed acyclic graph when the age effect (δ 1 ) and cohort effect (δ 2 ) are estimated directly, and the period effect is estimated using mediators as per Pearl’s front-door criterion, while one period mediator is unmeasured. Left: effect estimates if M 2 is measured, and P More

Fig. 3 Estimated region fixed-effect and year-effect coefficients. We fit separate regressions for each period, allowing the year effect to differ across regions. The regression outcome is logged, age-standardized infectious mortality, representing the logged ratio of actual to expected More

Fig. 5 Joint effect on educational reproduction (high – low) and mobility effect (joint – mobility = fertility effect) More

Fig. 1 Illustration of the additive effect and multiplicative effect of parental divorce More