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Motherhood penalty
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in Trends in the Motherhood Wage Penalty and Fatherhood Wage Premium for Low, Middle, and High Earners
> Demography
Published: 25 September 2018
Journal Article
Demography (2021) 58 (4): 1275–1300.
Published: 01 August 2021
... wages remain stable or increase when they become fathers ( Killewald 2013 ; Lundberg and Rose 2002 ), women experience a substantial motherhood wage penalty ( Avellar and Smock 2003 ; Jee et al. 2019 ). Some of the motherhood wage penalty can be explained by differences in work experience, part-time...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2021) 58 (1): 247–272.
Published: 01 February 2021
... Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 and fixed-effects models, we examine how being a mother or father is linked to earnings growth within and across firms. We find that women's pay decreases as they become mothers and that the across-employer motherhood penalty is larger than the within-employer penalty...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2018) 55 (5): 1663–1680.
Published: 25 September 2018
...Fig. 1 Adjusted motherhood penalty for low, middle, and high earners ...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2009) 46 (2): 341–369.
Published: 01 May 2009
..., and West German women around the 1960s. We establish wage penalties for motherhood between 9% and 18% per child, with wage losses among American and British mothers being lower than those experienced by mothers in Germany. Labor market mechanisms generating the observed wage penalty for motherhood differ...
Journal Article
Demography (2012) 49 (1): 1–21.
Published: 26 October 2011
... examines whether the residual motherhood wage penalty results from differences between mothers and other women in the accumulation of work interruptions and breaks in schooling. Using longitudinal data for 486 women followed from ages 19 to 31 in the Minnesota Youth Development Study, we find...
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Journal Article
Demography (2017) 54 (6): 2331–2349.
Published: 30 October 2017
... pairings and their interaction with the motherhood penalty on women’s earnings, by international differences in male unemployment, or by cultural gender norms. We find that the newly emerged pattern of hypogamy is associated with higher relative earnings for women in all countries and that the motherhood...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2022) 59 (4): 1377–1402.
Published: 01 August 2022
...Susan Harkness Abstract This study examines how motherhood earnings penalties in combination with the cost of partner absence affect single mothers' economic well-being. Using longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics for 1990–2015 and fixed-effects models with individual-specific...
Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2021) 58 (4): 1223–1248.
Published: 01 August 2021
... significantly reduces the motherhood employment penalty among high-SES women but not among low-SES women. Unequal rates of mother-daughter employment transmission by SES can account for 36% of growing inequality in maternal employment across SES groups, observed in the Current Population Survey, between 1999...
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Journal Article
The Long-Term Costs of Family Trajectories: Women’s Later-Life Employment and Earnings Across Europe
Demography (2020) 57 (3): 1007–1034.
Published: 23 April 2020
...Joanne S. Muller; Nicole Hiekel; Aart C. Liefbroer Abstract The “motherhood earnings penalty” is a well-established finding in many Western countries. However, a divide between mothers and nonmothers might oversimplify reality given that the family life course has diversified over the last decades...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2021) 58 (4): 1301–1325.
Published: 01 August 2021
... wage penalty because they have steeper average wage trajectories before motherhood. In subsequent analyses that disaggregated skill and race, England and colleagues (2016) found skill heterogeneity in the wage penalty among White women but not Black women; specifically, highly skilled White women...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2015) 52 (5): 1601–1626.
Published: 10 September 2015
... (who are, by definition, mothers or fathers) may be shaped by the presence or absence of children among the second generation. The general pattern in the work and family literature indicates that women with children experience a “motherhood penalty,” in which they earn less than similar women without...
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Journal Article
Demography (2020) 57 (1): 33–60.
Published: 29 January 2020
... of the explanatory power, and family measures change estimates by only a small amount. In Model 6, we add interaction effects with gender and race/ethnicity, and with gender and number of children. This model thus tests for whether a motherhood penalty or racial differences in gender effects are associated...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2017) 54 (1): 93–118.
Published: 04 January 2017
..., is a persistent “motherhood penalty” in wages (Budig and England 2001 ; Waldfogel 1997 ), which is in sharp contrast with a “fatherhood premium” (Budig 2014 ; Killewald 2013 ). Among the most important sources of this penalty is changing employment behavior after childbirth that results in a cumulative loss...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2021) 58 (3): 1093–1117.
Published: 01 June 2021
... also became less likely to downgrade to lower-paying jobs following parenthood. Research on the motherhood wage penalty offers some support here, showing that motherhood wage gaps may have declined over time ( Glauber 2018 ; Pal and Waldfogel 2016 ). Changes in men's earnings following parenthood...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2022) 59 (2): 787–812.
Published: 01 April 2022
... also implies that policy expansions allowed them to spend more time recovering from childbirth and caring for their newborns. These findings are consistent with the literature on the motherhood penalty; higher skilled and higher earning mothers minimized losses in career continuity. Finally...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2013) 50 (4): 1197–1216.
Published: 24 January 2013
...-partnered women. Instead, the results show that women’s earnings decline during the first years of partnership compared with their prepartnership earnings, which to a large extent is related to bearing and rearing children—that is, the “motherhood penalty” (e.g., Budig and England 2001 ). Table 3 also...
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Journal Article
Demography (2015) 52 (6): 1961–1993.
Published: 21 October 2015
... in gender role attitudes and perceived marital quality . American Sociological Review , 60 , 58 – 66 . 10.2307/2096345 . Avellar , S. , & Smock , P. J. ( 2003 ). Has the price of motherhood declined over time? A cross-cohort comparison of the motherhood wage penalty . Journal...
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Journal Article
Demography (2021) 58 (4): 1249–1274.
Published: 01 August 2021
... and Frech 2016 ; Killewald and Zhou 2019 ; Lu et al. 2017 ; Lundberg and Rose 2002 ; Musick et al. 2020 ). Reductions in mothers' cumulative work experience due to employment gaps, in turn, account for a large portion of both the motherhood wage penalty and gender wage gap ( Aisenbrey et al. 2009...
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Includes: Supplementary data
Journal Article
Demography (2011) 48 (3): 863–887.
Published: 07 July 2011
.... , & DiPrete T. ( 2006 ). The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement . American Sociological Review , 71 , 515 – 541 . 10.1177/000312240607100401 Budig M. , & England P. ( 2001 ). The wage penalty for motherhood...
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