Abstract
We explore the determinants of domestic violence in two rural areas of Bangladesh. We found increased education, higher socioeconomic status, non-Muslim religion, and extended family residence to be associated with lower risks of violence. The effects of women’s status on violence was found to be highly context-specific. In the more culturally conservative area, higher individual-level women’s autonomy and short-term membership in savings and credit groups were both associated with significantly elevated risks of violence, and community-level variables were unrelated to violence. In the less culturally conservative area, in contrast, individual-level women’s status indicators were unrelated to the risk of violence, and community-level measures of women’s status were associated with significantly lower risks of violence, presumably by reinforcing nascent normative changes in gender relations.
The text of this article is only available as a PDF.
References
Abdullah, T.A., & Zeidenstein, S.A. (
1982
). Village Women in Bangladesh: Prospects for Change
. Oxford, England
: Pergamon Press
.Amin, S. (
1997
). The Poverty-Purdah Trap in Rural Bangladesh: Implications for Women’s Roles in the Family
. Development and Change
, 28
, 213
–33
. 10.1111/1467-7660.00041Amin, S., Basu, A.M., & Stephenson, R. (
2002
). Spatial Variation in Contraceptive Use in Bangladesh: Looking Beyond the Borders
. Demography
, 39
, 251
–67
. 10.1353/dem.2002.0014Balk, D. (
1994
). Individual and Community Aspects of Women’s Status and Fertility in Rural Bangladesh
. Population Studies
, 48
, 21
–45
. 10.1080/0032472031000147456Blanc, A., Wolff, B., Gage, A.G., Ezeh, A.C., Neema, S., & Ssekamatte-Ssebuliba, J. (
1996
). Negotiating Reproductive Outcomes in Uganda
. Kampala, Uganda and Calverton, MD
: Institute of Statistics and Applied Economics and Macro International
.Caesar, P.L. (
1988
). Exposure to Violence in the Families-of-Origin Among Wife-Abusers and Maritally Nonviolent Men
. Violence and Victims
, 3
, 49
–63
.Cleland, J.C., Phillips, J.F., Amin, S., & Kamal, G.M. (
1994
). The Determinants of Reproductive Change in Bangladesh—Success in a Challenging Environment
. Washington, DC
: The World Bank
.Clogg, C.C. (
1982
). Some Models for the Analysis of Association in Multiway Cross-Classifications Having Ordered Categories
. Journal of the American Statistical Association
, 77
, 803
–15
. 10.2307/2287311Coker, A.L., & Richter, D.L. (
1998
). Violence Against Women in Sierra Leone: Frequency and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence and Forced Sexual Intercourse
. African Journal of Reproductive Health
, 2
, 61
–72
.Collins, L.M., Wugalter, S.E., & Fidler, P.L. (
1996
). Some Practical Issues Related to the Estimation of Latent Class and Latent Transition Parameters
. In
A.V.
Eye, &
C.C.
Clogg (Eds.), Categorical Variables in Development Research: Methods of Analysis
(pp. 133
–46
). San Diego
: Academic Press
.Counts, D.A., Brown, J.K., & Campbell, J.C. (
1992
). Sanctions and Sanctuary: Cultural Perspectives on the Beating of Wives
. Boulder
: Westview Press
.Ellsberg, M., Pena, R., Herrera, A., Liljestrand, J., & Winkvist, A. (
1999
). Wife Abuse Among Women of Childbearing Age in Nicaragua
. American Journal of Public Health
, 89
, 241
–44
. 10.2105/AJPH.89.2.241El-Zanaty, F., Hussein, E.M., Shawky, G., Way, A., & Kishor, S. (
1995
). Egypt Demographic and Health Survey
. Calverton, MD
: National Population Council and Macro International
.Uttar Pradesh: Male Reproductive Health Survey, 1995–1996
. (1997
). Chapel Hill, NC
: Carolina Population Center
.Fauveau, V., & Blanchet, T. (
1989
). Deaths From Injuries and Induced Abortion Among Rural Bangladeshi Women
. Social Science and Medicine
, 29
, 1121
–27
. 10.1016/0277-9536(89)90025-7Fauveau, V., Wojtyniak, B., Koenig, M.A., Chakraborty, J., & Chowdhury, A.I. (
1989
). Epidemiology and Cause of Deaths Among Women in Rural Bangladesh
. International Journal of Epidemiology
, 18
, 139
–45
. 10.1093/ije/18.1.139Gibbons, R.D., & Hedeker, D. (
1997
). Random-Effects Probit and Logistic Regression Models for Three Level Data
. Biometrics
, 53
, 1527
–37
. 10.2307/2533520Goetz, A.M., & Sen Gupta, R. (
1996
). Who Takes the Credit? Gender, Power, and Control Over Loan Use in Rural Credit Programs in Bangladesh
. World Development
, 24
, 45
–63
. 10.1016/0305-750X(95)00124-UHagenaars, J.A. (
1993
). Loglinear Models With Latent Variables
. Newbury Park, CA
: Sage
.Haj-Yahia, M.M., & Edleson, J.L. (
1994
). Predicting the Use of Conflict Resolution Tactics Among Engaged Arab-Palestinian Men in Israel
. Journal of Family Violence
, 9
, 47
–62
. 10.1007/BF01531968Hartmann, B., & Boyce, J. C. (
1983
). A Quiet Violence: View From a Bangladesh Village
. London
: Zed Press
.Hashemi, S.M., Schuler, S.R., & Riley, A.P. (
1996
). Rural Credit Programs and Women’s Empowerment in Bangladesh
. World Development
, 24
, 635
–53
. 10.1016/0305-750X(95)00159-AHeise, L. (
1998
). Violence Against Women: An Integrated, Ecological Framework
. Violence Against Women
, 4
, 262
–90
. 10.1177/1077801298004003002Heise, L., Pitanguy, J., & Germain, A. (
1994
). Violence Against Women: The Hidden Health Burden
. Washington, DC
: The World Bank
.Heise, L.L., Raikes, A., Watts, C.H., & Zwi, A.B. (
1994
). Violence Against Women: A Neglected Public Health Issue in Less Developed Countries
. Social Science and Medicine
, 39
, 1165
–79
. 10.1016/0277-9536(94)90349-2Hindin, M.J., & Adair, L.S. (
2002
). Who’s at Risk? Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence in the Philippines
. Social Science and Medicine
, 55
, 1385
–99
. 10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00273-8Hoffman, K., Demo, D.H., & Edwards, J.N. (
1994
). Physical Wife Abuse in a Non-Western Society: An Integrated Theoretical Approach
. Journal of Marriage and the Family
, 56
, 131
–46
. 10.2307/352709Hotaling, G., & Sugarman, D. (
1986
). An Analysis of Risk Markers in Husband to Wife Violence: The Current State of Knowledge
. Violence and Victims
, 1
, 101
–24
.National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2), 1998–99
. (2000
). Mumbai, India
: IIPS
.Jejeebhoy, S.J. (
1998
). Wife-Beating in Rural India: A Husband’s Right? Evidence From Survey Data
. Economic and Political Weekly
, 33
, 855
–62
.Jejeebhoy, S.J. (
2000
). Women’s Autonomy in Rural India: Its Dimensions, Determinants, and the Influence of Context
. In
H.B.
Presser, &
G.
Sen (Eds.), Women’s Empowerment and Demographic Processes
(pp. 204
–38
). Oxford, England
: Oxford University Press
.Jejeebhoy, S.J., & Cook, R.J. (
1997
). State Accountability for Wife-Beating: The Indian Challenge
. Lancet
, 349
, S110
–12
. 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)90004-0Jewkes, R., Levin, J., & Penn-Kekana, L. (
2002
). Risk Factors for Domestic Violence: Findings From a South African Cross-Sectional Study
. Social Science and Medicine
, 55
, 1603
–17
. 10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00294-5Jewkes, R., Penn-Kekana, L., Levin, J., Ratsaka, M., & Schrieber, M. (
2001
). Prevalence of Emotional, Physical, and Sexual Abuse of Women in Three South African Provinces
. South African Medical Journal
, 91
, 421
–28
.Kabeer, N. (
2001
). Conflicts Over Credit: Re-evaluating the Empowerment Potential of Loans to Women in Rural Bangladesh
. World Development
, 29
, 63
–84
. 10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00081-4Kalmus, D. (
1984
). The Intergenerational Transmission of Marital Aggression
. Journal of Marriage and the Family
, 46
, 11
–19
. 10.2307/351858Khandker, S.R. (
1998
). Fighting Poverty With Microcredit: Experience in Bangladesh
. New York
: Oxford University Press
.Kim, K., & Cho, Y. (
1992
). Epidemiological Survey of Spousal Abuse in Korea
. In
E.C.
Viano (Ed.), Intimate Violence: Interdisciplinary Perspectives
(pp. 277
–82
). Washington, DC
: Hemisphere
.Koenig, M.A., Lutalo, T., Zhao, F., Nalugoda, F., Wabwire-Mangen, F., Kiwanuka, N., Wagman, J., Serwadda, D., Wawer, M., & Gray, R. (
2003
). Domestic Violence in Rural Uganda: Evidence From a Community-Based Survey
. Bulletin of the World Health Organization
, 81
, 53
–60
.Koenig, M.A., & Simmons, R. (
1992
). Constraints on Supply and Demand for Family Planning: Evidence From Rural Bangladesh
. In
J.F.
Phillips, &
J.
Ross (Eds.), Family Planning Programmes and Fertility
(pp. 259
–75
). Oxford, England
: Oxford University Press
.Levinson, D. (
1989
). Family Violence in Cross-Cultural Perspectives
. Newbury Park, CA
: Sage
.Mahajan, A. (
1990
). Instigators of Wife Battering
. In
S.
Sood (Ed.), Violence Against Women
(pp. 1
–10
). Jaipur, India
: Arihant
.Mandelbaum, D.G. (
1988
). Women’s Seclusion and Men’s Honor: Sex Roles in North India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan
. Tucson
: University of Arizona Press
.Martin, S.L., Moracco, K.E., Garro, J., Tsui, A.O., Kupper, L., Chase, J.L., & Campbell, J.C. (
2002
). Domestic Violence Across Generations: Findings From Northern India
. International Journal of Epidemiology
, 31
, 560
–72
. 10.1093/ije/31.3.560Martin, S.L., Tsui, A.O., Maitra, K., & Marinshaw, R. (
1999
). Domestic Violence in Northern India
. American Journal of Epidemiology
, 150
, 417
–26
.McCutcheon, A.L. (
1987
). Latent Class Analysis
. Newbury Park, CA
: Sage
.Mitra, S.N., Ali, M.N., Islam, S., Cross, A.R., & Saha, T. (
1994
). Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey, 1993–1994
. Calverton, MD and Dhaka, Bangladesh
: National Institute for Population Research and Training (NIPORT), Mitra and Associates, and Macro International, Inc.
.Mozumder, A.B.M.K.A., Koenig, M.A., Phillips, J.F., & Murad, S. (
1990
). The Sample Registration System: An Innovative System for Monitoring Demographic Dynamics
. Asia-Pacific Population Journal
, 5
, 63
–72
.Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey, 1999–2000
. (2001
). Dhaka, Bangladesh and Calverton, MD
: NIPORT, Mirta and Associates, and ORC Macro
.Nelson, E., & Zimmerman, C. (
1996
). Household Survey on Domestic Violence in Cambodia
. Phnom Penh, Cambodia
: Ministry of Women’s Affairs and the Project Against Domestic Violence
.O’Campo, P.O., Gielen, A.C., Faden, R.R., Xue, X., Kass, N., & Wang, M.-C. (
1995
). Violence by Male Partners Against Women During the Childbearing Year: A Contextual Analysis
. American Journal of Public Health
, 85
, 1092
–97
. 10.2105/AJPH.85.8_Pt_1.1092Demographic and Health Survey for Columbia
. (1995
). Calverton, MD
: Macro International
.Rahman, A. (
1999
). Micro-Credit Initiatives for Equitable and Sustainable Development: Who Pays?
. World Development
, 27
, 67
–82
. 10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00105-3Rao, V. (
1997
). Wife-Beating in Rural South India: A Qualitative and Econometric Analysis
. Social Science and Medicine
, 44
, 1169
–80
. 10.1016/S0277-9536(96)00252-3Sampson, R.J., Raudenbush, S.W., & Earls, F. (
1977
). Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multi-Level Study of Collective Efficacy
. Science
, 277
, 918
–24
. 10.1126/science.277.5328.918Schuler, S.R., Hashemi, S.M., & Badal, S.H. (
1998
). Men’s Violence Against Women in Rural Bangladesh; Undermined or Exacerbated by Microcredit Programmes?
. Development in Practice
, 8
, 148
–56
. 10.1080/09614529853774Schuler, S.R., Hashemi, S.M., Riley, A.P., & Akhter, S. (
1996
). Credit Programs, Patriarchy and Men’s Violence Against Women in Rural Bangladesh
. Social Science and Medicine
, 43
, 1729
–42
. 10.1016/S0277-9536(96)00068-8Simmons, R. (
1996
). Women’s Lives in Transition: A Qualitative Analysis of the Fertility Decline in Bangladesh
. Studies in Family Planning
, 27
, 251
–68
. 10.2307/2137997Straus, M., & Gelles, R. (
1990
). Physical Violence in American Families
. New Brunswick
: Transaction Press
.van der Straten, A., King, R., Grinstead, O., Vittinghoff, E., Serufilira, A., & Allen, S. (
1998
). Sexual Coercion, Physical Violence, and HIV Infection Among Women in Steady Relationships in Kigali, Rwanda
. AIDS and Behavior
, 2
, 61
–73
. 10.1023/A:1022311424652Wallace, D., & Wallace, R. (
1998
). Scales of Geography, Time, and Population: The Study of Violence as a Public Health Problem
. American Journal of Public Health
, 88
, 1853
–58
. 10.2105/AJPH.88.12.1853Watts, C., Keough, E., Ndlovu, M., & Kwaramba, R. (
1998
). Withholding of Sex and Forced Sex: Dimensions of Violence Against Zimbabwean Women
. Reproductive Health Matters
, 6
, 57
–65
. 10.1016/S0968-8080(98)90008-8World Health Organization. 1996. Violence Against Women. FRH/WHD/96.27. Geneva, February 5–7.
© Population Association of America 2003
2003
