Abstract
I reexamine trends in the strength and structure of occupational sex segregation in the United States from 1910 to 1990. Log-multiplicative models show significant change in the association between gender and occupation. Contrary to conventional characterizations, a substantial proportion of this change occurred before 1970. Likewise, a margin-free index shows more integration over the century than do conventional indices. These discrepancies arise from occupation-specific variations in the trajectory of sex segregation: Highly segregated occupations were especially likely to integrate between 1930 and 1940. I identify regions of the occupational structure and pivotal periods in which shifts in segregation occurred and compare these results with conventional historical accounts.
Occupational Segregation, Occupational Structure, Major Occupation, Labor Occupation, Perfect Integration
The text of this article is only available as a PDF.
References
Abel, M., & Folbre, N. (
1990
). A Methodology for Revising Estimates: Female Market Participation in the U.S. Before 1940
. Historical Methods
, 23
(4
), 167
–76
.Beck, E.M., Horan, P., & Tolbert, C.M. (
1978
). Stratification in a Dual Economy: A Sectoral Model of Earnings Determination
. American Sociological Review
, 45
, 737
–65
.Becker, G. (
1957
). The Economics of Discrimination
. Chicago
: University of Chicago Press
.Beller, A. (
1984
). Trends in Occupational Segregation bySex and Race, 1960–1981
. In B. Reskin (Ed.), Sex Segregation in the Workplace: Trends, Explanations, and Remedies
(pp. 11
–26
). Washington, DC
: National Academy Press
.Bertaux, N. (
1991
). The Roots of Today's 'Women's Jobs' and 'Men's Jobs': Using the Index of Dissimilarity to Measure Occupational Segregation by Gender
. Explorations in Economic History
, 28
, 433
–59
. 10.1016/0014-4983(91)90003-2Blankenship, K. (
1983
). Sectoral Influences on Occupational Sex Segregation
. In R.L. Simpson, & L. H. Simpson (Eds.), Research in the Sociology of Work, Vol. 2: Peripheral Workers
(pp. 69
–99
). Greenwich, CT
: JAI Press
.Blau, F., & Hendricks, W. (
1979
). Occupational Segregation by Sex: Trends and Prospects
. The Journal of Human Resources
, 14
, 197
–210
. 10.2307/145642Blitz, R.C. (
1974
). Women in the Professions, 1870–1970
. Monthly Labor Review
, 97
, 34
–39
.Carlson, S. (
1992
). Trends in Race/Sex Occupational Inequality: Conceptual and Measurement Issues
. Social Problems
, 39
, 268
–90
. 10.1525/sp.1992.39.3.03x0035iCharles, M. (
1992
). Cross-National Variation in Occupational Sex Segregation
. American Sociological Review
, 57
, 483
–502
. 10.2307/2096096Charles, M., & Grusky, D.B. (
1995
). Models for Describing the Underlying Structure of Sex Segregation
. American Journal of Sociology
, 100
, 931
–71
. 10.1086/230605Chafe, W. (
1972
). The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Role
(pp. 1920
–1970
). New York
: Oxford University Press
.Cohn, S. (
1985
). The Process of Occupational Sex-Typing
. Philadelphia
: Temple University Press
.Conk, M.A. (
1978
). Occupational Classification in the United States Census: 1870–1940
. Journal of Interdisciplinary History
, 9
(1
), 111
–30
. 10.2307/203672Edwards, A. (
1943
). Comparative Occupation Statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940
. Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.England, P. (
1981
). Assessing Trends in Occupational Sex Segregation, 1900–1976
. In L. Berg (Ed.), Sociological Perspectives on the Labor Market
(pp. 273
–95
). New York
: Academic Press
.Fuchs, V.R. (
1975
). A Note on Sex Segregation in Professional Occupations
. Explorations in Economic Research
, 2
, 105
–11
.Glenn, E.N., & Feldberg, R.L. (
1982
). Degraded and Deskilled: The Proletarianization of Clerical Work
. In R. Kahn-Hut, A.K. Daniels, & R. Colvard (Eds.), Women and Work: Problems and Perspectives
(pp. 202
–17
). New York
: Oxford University Press
.Goldin, C. (
1983
). Historians' Consensus on the Economic Role of Women in American History: A Review Essay
. Historical Methods
, 16
(2
), 74
–81
.Goldin, C. (
1986
). The Female Labor Force and American Economic Growth
. In S.L. Engerman, & R.E. Gallman (Eds.), Long Term Factors in American Economic Growth
(pp. 557
–604
). Chicago
: University of Chicago Press
.Gross, E. (
1968
). Plus Ça Change …..? The Sexual Structure of Occupations Over Time
. Social Problems
, 16
, 198
–208
. 10.1525/sp.1968.16.2.03a00070Hesse, S.J. (
1979
). Women Working: Historical Trends
. In K.W. Feinstein (Ed.), Working Women and Families
(pp. 35
–62
). Beverly Hills
: Sage
.Jacobs, J. (
1989
). Long-Term Trends in Occupational Segregation by Sex
. American Journal of Sociology
, 95
, 160
–73
. 10.1086/229217Goldin, C. (
1992
). Women's Entry into Management: Trends in Earnings, Authority, and Values Among Salaried Managers
. Administrative Science Quarterly
, 37
, 282
–301
. 10.2307/2393225Jacobs, J., & Lim, S. (
1992
). Trends in Occupational and Industrial Sex Segregation in 56 Countries, 1960–1980
. Work and Occupations
, 19
, 450
–86
. 10.1177/0730888492019004006Jacobs, J., & Lim, S. (
1995
). Trends in Occupational and Industrial Sex Segregation in 56 Countries, 1960–1980
. In J.A. Jacobs (Ed.), Gender Inequality at Work
(pp. 259
–93
). Thousand Oaks, CA
: Sage
.Jacobsen, J.P. (
1994
). Trends in Work Force Sex Segregation, 1960–1990
. Social Science Quarterly
, 75
, 204
–11
.Jacobsen, J.P. (
1997
). Trends in Workforce Segregation: 1980 and 1990 Census Figures
. Social Science Quarterly
, 78
, 234
–35
.James, D.R., & Taeuber, K.E. (
1985
). Measures of Segregation
. In N. Tuma (Ed.), Sociological Methodology 1985
(pp. 1
–32
). San Francisco
: Jossey-Bass
.Kessler-Harris, A. (
1982
). Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States
. New York
: Oxford University Press
.King, M. (
1992
). Occupational Segregation by Race and Gender, 1940–1980
. Monthly Labor Review
, 115
, 30
–37
.Massey, D.S., & Denton, N.A. (
1988
). The Dimensions of Residential Segregation
. Social Forces
, 67
, 281
–315
. 10.2307/2579183Milkman, R. (
1987
). Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex During World War II
. Urbana, IL
: University of Illinois Press
.Moen, J. (
1988
). From Gainful Employment to Labor Force: Definitions and a New Estimate of Work Rates of American Males, 1860 to 1980
. Historical Methods
, 21
(4
), 149
–58
.Pidgeon, M.E. (
1938
). Women in the Economy of the United States of America: A Summary Report
. Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.Preston, S.H. (
1989
). Census of the Population. 1910 [United States: Public Use Sample
. Philadelphia
: Population Studies Center, University of Pennsylvania
.Raftery, A. (
1995
). Bayesian Model Selection in Social Research
. Sociological Methodology
, 25
, 111
–63
. 10.2307/271063Reskin, B. (
1993
). Sex Segregation in the Workplace
. Annual Review of Sociology
, 19
, 241
–70
. 10.1146/annurev.so.19.080193.001325Reskin, B., & Roos, P. (
1990
). Job Queues. Gender Queues: Explaining Women's Inroads Into Male Occupations
. Philadelphia
: Temple Press
.Sokoloff, N. (
1992
). Black Women and White Women in the Professions
. New York
: Routledge, Chapman, and Hall
.Smith, J.P., & Welch, F. (
1984
). Affirmative Action and Labor Markets
. Journal of Labor Economics
, 2
, 269
–301
. 10.1086/298034Occupational Trends in the United States: 1900 to 1950
. (1958
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.Census of the Population. 1960. Volume I. Characteristics of the Population: Detailed Characteristics. Part 1: U.S. Summary
. (1962
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.Changes Between the 1950 and 1960 Occupation and Industry Classifications—With Detailed Adjustments of 1950 Data to the 1960 Classifications
. (1968
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.1970 Occupation and Industry Classification Systems in Terms of Their 1960 Occupation and Industry Elements
. (1972
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.Census of the Population. 1970. Volume 1. Characteristics of the Population: Detailed Characteristics. Part I. U.S. Summary
. (1973
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.Census of the Population, 1980. Volume 1. Characteristics of the Population: Detailed Characteristics. Part 1. U.S. Summary
. (1984
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.The Relationship Between the 1970 and 1980 Industry and Occupation Classification Systems
. (1989
). Washington, DC
: U.S. Government Printing Office
.U.S. Bureau of the Census. 1993. Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) Supplemental Tabulations File. Census of the Population and Housing, 1990. Distributed by the U.S. Bureau of the Census, Washington, DC.
Wandersee, W. (
1981
). The Economics of Middle-Income Family Life: Working Women During the Great Depression
. The Journal of American History
, 65
, 60
–74
.Wharton, A.S. (
1989
). Gender Segregation in Private-Sector, Public-Sector, and Self-Employed Occupations, 1950–1981
. Social Science Quarterly
, 70
, 923
–40
.Williams, G. (
1979
). The Changing U.S. Labor Force and Occupational Differentiation by Sex
. Demography
, 16
, 73
–87
. 10.2307/2061080© Population Association of America 1998
1998
