... Hispanic traders, landlords, and officials in the capital, indigenous communities that ruled production and political life in the Western Highlands, and mixed (ladino) growers who found earnings in cochineal after independence. After experimenting with liberalism in the 1830s, a fragile integration set in...

... capital, indigenous communities that ruled production and political life in the Western Highlands, and mixed (ladino) growers who found earnings in cochineal after independence. After experimenting with liberalism in the 1830s, a fragile integration set in under strongman Rafael Carrera by the 1840s...

... nationalize Spanish.∫ Ocampo’s use of English is thus linked to a linguistic practice that has its roots in the Spanish colonial era, conceivably stretching as far back as the seventeenth century in the works of ladino poets like Fernando Bagongbanta and Tomas Pinpin. Just as Rizal and company...