References to newspapers in the footnotes pertain, for the most part, to the Tuskegee Institute News Clipping File or the Hampton University Newspaper Clipping File, listed under manuscript and archival material. These collections are invaluable. They contain clippings from many newspapers of the period under consideration. The Hampton file is now available on microfiche, though I examined the original scrapbooks at Virginia’s Hampton University. The Tuskegee file is available on microfilm. Both collections were extremely useful, particularly so because they contain a wealth of material from African American newspapers, including many Southern ones, that are long defunct and extremely rare or impossible to find elsewhere. The custodians of the collections generally wrote the date and source on the clippings, but in some instances the information is missing or the handwritten note is illegible. In these cases, I have cited the newspaper by name and indicated the microfilm reel where the clipping is located in the Tuskegee file. The Tuskegee Institute News Clipping File is referenced as TCF in the notes. The Hampton Clipping File is abbreviated as HCF.

Articles and essays cited from the follOWing periodicals are not independently listed in the bibliography: the Crisis (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People); Oppurtunity (National Urban League); the Southern Wurkman (Hampton Institute); the Negro Farmer (Tuskegee Institute), and Rural America (American Country Life Association). Denominational journals and newspapers, such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church’s Church Review (cited as AME Church Review) and the Christian Recurder, or the National Baptist Union Review of the National Baptist Convention, appear frequently in the footnotes but are not listed in the bibliography. References to denominational minutes and conference appear only in the chapter notes.