Chapter 3, “Whose Confusion?,” considers the spiritual worlds of Palmares. The chapter begins with a discussion of previous treatments of the titles “Zumbi” and “Zambi,” which have generated a lot of confusion over time, and which contemporary Europeans translated as “Devil” and “God,” respectively. The author employs methodology from comparative historical linguistics to show that Bantu-language speakers would not have confused the two terms, even though earlier generations of scholars suggested that that was the case. The approach also reveals that Zumbi’s name evoked water and life-giving rain as well as ancestor spirits called nzumbi. The chapter also discusses how and why Palmaristas may have incorporated “evil” practices associated with the Imbangala in West Central Africa in order to forge community and defeat rivals.
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