How are we to understand Indigenous biological difference in the twenty-first century? Is it a racist ruse, a stubborn residue of racial pseudoscience? Is it something that exists but that should not be allowed to have social or political relevance? Or is it a potentially empowering force that can be unlocked by newly accurate science? Or by being under Indigenous control? To answer these questions, this book traces the rise and fall of different lines of biological and medical inquiry over the twentieth century and up to the present. Each new discipline that sought to produce biological knowledge about Indigenous people claimed new theories or methods that were superior to previous modes of knowledge production. Along the way, thousands of bones, hair samples, blood samples, pathology slides, placental samples, and more were acquired, collated, and stored in museums and laboratories across Australia and the countries of the Global North.