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This chapter describes the cultural anxieties and rehabilitation of the crooner persona, then discusses the complex reasons for early crooners’ popularity and the ensuing backlash against them that precipitated the establishment of new middle-class vocal norms for white male popular (“pop”) singers. It discusses class-based singing aesthetics, an etymology of crooning, the impact of modern microphones and radio broadcasting, vocal variety in popular performance of the 1920s, the pivotal role of American youth and women in popularizing romantic crooning, the growing influence of racial assimilation and cultural nationalism, and the establishment of a sexual binary.
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Bibliography
ARCHIVAL SOURCES
J. Walter Thompson Archive. The John W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising and Marketing History. Duke University, Durham, NC.
Margaret Herrick Library, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, Beverly Hills (MHL).
Rudy Vallée Collection. Scrapbooks, Correspondence, Scripts, Periodicals, and Recordings. The American Radio Archives, The Thousand Oaks Library, Thousand Oaks, CA (RVC).
UCLA Film and Television Archive, University of California, Los Angeles.
Wendall Hall papers, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison.
RECORDINGS: A NOTE
I have noted in the text both the original recording dates of popular songs and the release date of the “best of” CD reissues of them in the 1990s, where I first heard them. Most of the early 1920s crooners were released on specialty imprints by English companies such as Living Era (ASV Records) and Flapper (Pavilion Records); small U.S. labels such as Audiophile Records (New Orleans), Diamond Cut Productions (Edison archive, Hibernia, NJ), and The Old Masters (George Morrow collection, San Mateo, CA); and specialty imprints from large multinational corporations such as Art Deco (Columbia, Sony Music). Since then, many of these songs have become available on streaming music channels such as Pandora and Spotify, as well as on YouTube (see especially the recording historian Tim Gracyk’s constantly updated treasure trove of early crooner recordings on his YouTube channel).
FILMOGRAPHY
Note: I first saw many of these films on VHS copies passed around in graduate school or on nitrate in the UCLA Film and Television Archives. Fortunately, many films have since been released on DVD, which I have noted. For the collections, I have not listed all the shorts on the DVDS, just the ones relevant to this project.
Selected Shorts
Clinching a Sale (with Harry Richman)
. Directed by Cozine
Ray
. USA
: Paramount
, 1930
. UCLA Film Archives. YouTube
. Crosby, Columbo, and Vallée (cartoon)
. Directed by Isling
Rudolf
. USA
: Warner Bros.
, 1932
. Private Collection. YouTube
.Metro Movietone Revue I (Harry Rose, Van and Schenck, The Capitolians, Grace Rodgers)
. Directed by Grinde
Nick
. USA
: MGM
, 1929
. On The Dawn of Sound II. USA: MGM/UA Home Video, 1993. VHS. Also on The Broadway Melody. “Special Features.” USA: Turner Entertainment, 2005. DVD
. Metro Movietone Revue II (Harry Rose, Johnny Marvin, George Dewey Washington, The Locust Sisters)
. Directed by Grinde
Nick
. USA
: MGM
, 1929
. On The Dawn of Sound II. USA: MGM/UA Home Video, 1993. VHS. Also on The Broadway Melody. “Special Features.” USA: Turner Entertainment, 2005. DVD
. Metro Movietone Revue I (Jack Pepper, Joseph Regan)
. Directed by Grinde
Nick
. USA
: MGM
, 1930
. On The Dawn of Sound II. USA: MGM/UA Home Video, 1993. VHS. Also on The Broadway Melody. “Special Features.” USA: Turner Entertainment, 2005. DVD
. Metro Movietone Revue II (Jack Pepper, Ella Shields, George Dewey Washington, Joseph Regan, The Ponce Sisters)
. Directed by Grinde
Nick
. USA
: MGM
, 1930
. On The Dawn of Sound II. USA: MGM/UA Home Video, 1993. VHS. Also on The Broadway Melody. “Special Features.” USA: Turner Entertainment, 2005. DVD
. A Movietone Divertissement (Tom Waring, Johnny Marvin)
. USA
: MGM
, 1928
. On The Broadway Melody. “Special Features” (as Movietone Revue #7). USA: Turner Entertainment, 2005. DVD
.Our Gang: “Follies of 1938.”
Directed by Douglas
Gordon
. USA
: Hal Roach Studios
, 1937
. Private Collection. YouTube
.Rudy Vallée and His Connecticut Yankees 771
. Directed by Roth
Murray
. USA
: Warner Bros. Vitaphone
, 1929
. Private Collection
.Swooner Crooner
. Directed by Tashlin
Frank
. USA
: Warner Bros.
, 1944
. Private Collection
.That Goes Double (with Russ Columbo) 1495–6
. Directed by Henabery
Joseph
. USA
: Warner Bros. Vitaphone
, 1933
. Private Collection
.Selected Short Film Collections
Bing at Sennett, vols. 1–2. USA: Festival Films, 1995. VHS. Contains One More Chance (directed by Mack Sennett; Sennett Picture Corp., 1931); Sing, Bing, Sing (directed by Babe Stafford; Sennett Picture Corp., 1933); Billboard Girl (directed by Leslie Pearce; Sennett Picture Corp., 1932).
Hollywood Rhythm: The Paramount Musical Shorts, 1929–1941, Volumes 1–4. USA: Kino Video, 1997. VHS. Contains Musical Justice (directed by Aubrey Scotto; Paramount, 1931); Radio Rhythm (directed by Joseph Stanley; Paramount, 1929); I Surrender Dear (directed by Mack Sennett; Sennett Picture Corp., 1931).
Hollywood Rhythm: The Paramount Musical Shorts, Volume 2: The Best of Big Bands and Swing. USA: Kino Video, 2001. DVD. Contains Blue of the Night (directed by Leslie Pearce; Sennett Picture Corp., 1932); The Musical Doctor (directed by Ray Cozine; Paramount, 1932); Singapore Sue (directed by Casey Robinson; Paramount, 1932); Dream House (aka Crooner’s Holiday) (directed by Del Lord; Sennett Picture Corp., 1932).
The Jazz Singer Deluxe Edition. USA: Warner Bros. Home Video, 2007. DVD. Contains Al Jolson: A Plantation Act 359 (1926); Van and Schenck: The Pennant Winning Battery of Songland 395 (1926); The Police Quartette 2320 (1927); Adele Rowland: Stories in Song 2348 (1928); Dick Rich and His Melodious Monarchs 2595 (1928); Gus Arnheim and His Ambassadors 2585 (1928); Paul Tremaine and His Aristocrats 742 (1929); Baby Rose Marie: The Child Wonder 809 (1929); Larry Ceballas’ Roof Garden Revue 2627 (1928).
Vitaphone Cavalcade of Musical Comedy Shorts Collection. USA: Warner Bros. Home Video, 2010. DVD.
Vitaphone Varieties. USA: Warner Bros. Home Video, 2011. DVD. Contains The Revelers, 483 (1927), Morrissey and Miller Nightclub Revue 2293 (1927), Earl Burtnett (Collegiate Jazz Artist) and His Biltmore Hotel Orchestra 2285 (1927), Val and Ernie Stanton in “Cut Yourself a Piece of Cake” 2586 (1928), Jimmy Clemons in “The Dream Café” 2242 (1927), Gladys Brockwell in “Hollywood Bound” 2235 (1928), Jay C. Flippen in “The Ham What Am,” 2581 (1928), Dick Rich and His Synco-Symphonists 2594 (1928), Eddie White in “I Thank You” 2689 (1928), Jack Waldron in “A Little Breath of Broadway” 2681 (1928), Earl Burtnett (Collegiate Jazz Artist) and His Biltmore Hotel Orchestra 2295 (1928), The Rangers in “ After the Round Up” 2900 (1928), Frank Whitman in “The Surprising Fiddler” 703 (1929), Harry Fox and His Six American Beauties, 828 (1929), Jack White “The Premiere Clown of Broadway” and His Montrealers 791 (1929), Oklahoma Bob Albright and His Rodeo Do Flappers 810 (1920), Mel Klee in “The Prince of Wails” 826 (1929), The Gotham Rhythm Boys 832 (1929), Poor Aubrey 3674–5 (1929), Revival Day 367 (1926?).
Vitaphone Varieties. Vol. 2. USA: Warner Bros. Home Video, 2012. DVD. Contains Hawaiian Nights, 422 (1927), Waring’s Pennsylvanians 427, 428 (1927), The Happiness Boys 537 (1927), Harry Wayman and His Debutantes 2261 (1927), Earl Burtnett (Collegiate Jazz Artist) and His Biltmore Hotel Orchestra 2294 (1928), Abe Lyman and His Orchestra 2338 (1928), Eddie Peabody in Banjoland 2560 (1928), Roy Fox “The Whispering Cornettist” 2819.
Warner Bros. Big Band, Jazz and Swing Short Subject Collection. USA: Turner Entertainment Co., 2009. DVD. Contains Rambling Round Radio Row 1–6, 1932–33 Season; Rambling Round Radio Row 1–2, 1933–34 Season; Rambling Round Radio Row 1934–35 Season.
Feature Films
Ann Carver’s Profession
. Directed by Buzzell
Edward
. USA
: Columbia
, 1933
. Private Collection. DVD
.The Big Broadcast of 1932
. Directed by Tuttle
Frank
. USA
: Paramount
, 1932
. Private Collection
.Broadway thru a Keyhole
. Directed by Sherman
Lowell
. USA
: Twentieth Century Pictures
, 1933
. DVD
.Chasing Rainbows (excerpts)
. Directed by Reisner
Charles
. USA
: MGM
, 1930
. UCLA Film Archives
.Close Harmony
. Directed by Cromwell
John
and Sutherland
A. Edward
. USA
: Paramount
, 1929
. UCLA Film Archives
.College Humor
. Directed by Ruggles
Wesley
. USA
: Paramount
, 1933
. UCLA Film Archives. DVD
. Crooner
. Directed by Bacon
Lloyd
. USA
: Warner Bros.
, 1922
. UCLA Film Archives / TCM Channel
.Devil’s Holiday
. Directed by Goulding
Edmund
. USA
: Paramount
, 1930
. UCLA Film Archives
.Do I Sound Gay?
Directed by Thorpe
David
. USA
: IFC Films / Sundance Selects
, 2015
. Theater
.George White’s Scandals
. Directed by Freeland
Thornton
, Lachman
Harry
, and White
George
. USA
: Fox
, 1934
. TCM Channel / DVD
.Glorifying the American Girl
. Directed by Webb
Millard
. USA
: Paramount
, 1929
. TCM Channel
.Gold Diggers of Broadway (excerpts)
. Directed by Ruth
Roy Del
. USA
: Warner Bros.
, 1929
. UCLA Film Archives. On The Dawn of Sound I. USA: MGM/UA Home Video, 1992. VHS. Also on The Jazz Singer Deluxe Edition. USA: Warner Bros. Home Video, 2007. DVD
.Good News (excerpts)
. Directed by Grinde
Nick
. USA
: MGM
, 1930
. UCLA Film and Television Archives
.The Hollywood Revue of 1929
. Directed by Reisner
Charles
. USA
: MGM
, 1929
. VHS Private Collection. DVD
.How to Succeed in Business without Really Trying
. Directed by Swift
David
. USA
: United Artists
, 1967
. DVD
.Mississippi
. Directed by Sutherland
Edward
. USA
: Paramount
, 1935
. UCLA Film Archives. DVD
. Mother’s Boy
. Directed by Barker
Bradley
. USA
: Pathé Exchange
, 1929
. UCLA Film Archives
.Moulin Rouge
. Directed by Lanfield
Sidney
. USA
: Twentieth Century Pictures
, 1934
. UCLA Film Archives
.Paramount on Parade
. Directed by Arzner
Dorothy
(10 others). USA
: Paramount
, 1930
. Private Collection. VHS
.Pennies from Heaven
. Directed by McLeod
Norman
. USA
: Paramount
, 1936
. UCLA Film Archives. DVD
. Too Much Harmony
. Directed by Sutherland
Edward
. USA
: Paramount
, 1933
. UCLA Film Archives
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